Hidayatu Nahw
Definition: It is a science with principles with which are known the case endings of the 3 types of words where it concerns declinable and non declinable words and the method of how they are ordered with each other. The objective is to avoid mistakes in the speech of the Arabs.
+ - It concerns two objects:
+ - اسم .1
حدّه (its definition) It has a meaning which is not dependant on any of the 3 times: الماضي أو الحال أو الإستقبال
+ - علامته (its signs) are 10:
Which means: a judgement is made about it due to it being either a فاعل أو مفعول أي نائب فاعل أو مبتدء
+ - 2. فعل: It has a meaning which is connected to one of 3 time frames and its meaning is given by its مصدر
+ - 3. حرف: It has no meaning in itself but indicates a meaning in something else. It is not specifically intended such as مسند و مسند إليه rather it comes on the side (حرف أو طرف)
Definition: speech in which 2 words are joined with a connection between them, from one to the other, so that it forms a complete statement or sentence.
+ - المعرب (the declinable noun)
+ - Its principles:
1. It is every noun that is joined with something else (in a sentence, not by itself) and it does not resemble an intrinsic مبني which are: الحرف و الأمر الحاضر و الماضي
+ - 2. Its ruling are:
+ - that its case ending changes by different عاملs either:
الإعراب (the case ending) are those things by which the end of the معرب changes and it of 3 types: رفع و نصب و جر and the عاملs are those things that effect these case endings.
Only the الاسم المتمكّن و الفعل المضارع are declined in the Arabic language
+ - 3. The different categories of إعراب الاسم and they are 9:
1. رفع بالضمة و نصب بالفتحة و جرّ بالكسرة and this is specific for الاسم المفرد المنصرف الصحيح which are those words that don't end in weak or double letters unless it ends in واو أو ياء and the letter before it is a ساكن such as: زيد و دلْو و ظبْي and those words which are جمع مكسر منصرف (declinable broken plurals) such as رجال
2. رفع بالضمة و نصب و جرّ بالكسرة and this is specific for جمع مؤنث سالم (sound feminine plural)
3.TODO: link to diptote explanation رفع بالضمة و نصب و جرّ بالفتحة and this is specific for غير منصرف أو ممنوع من الصرف (diptotes)
4. رفع بالواو و نصب بالألف و جرّ بالياء and this is specific for 6 nouns when singular and not in their تصغير form nor connected with ياء المتكلم
+ - 5. رفع بالألف و نصب و جرّ بالياء المفتوح ما قبله and this is specific to duals
+ - 6. رفع بالواو المضموم ما قبله و نصب و جرّ بالياء المكسور ما قبله and this is specific for جمع مذكر سالم (sound male plural) and أولو and the numbers عشرون and its likes.
7. رفع بتقدير الضمة و نصب بتقدير الفتحة و جرّ بتقدير الكسرة: (with the assumption of ضمة …) and this is specific to words ending with an الف مقصورة and the words that are مضاف إلى ياء المتكلم other than the جمع مذكر سالم: جاءني العصا و غلامي و رأيت العصا و غلامي
8. رفع بتقدير الضمة و نصب بالفتحة لفظا و جرّ بتقدير الكسرة and this is specific to the منقوص which are those words that end in a ياء after a كسرة: جاني القاضي و رأيت القاضيَ و مررت بالقاضي
9. رفع بالتقدير الضمة و نصب و جرّ بالياء لفظا and this is specific to جمع مذكر سالم مضاف إلى ياء المتكلم: جاني مسلميّ و رأيتمسلميّ و مررت بمسلميّ
منصرف (triptotes) These are normal words that don't contain any properties of the غير منصرف words and it is also called الأسم متمكن (declinable with nunnation) and its ruling is that is accepts the 3 case endings with تنوين
+ - (غير منصرف (ممنوع من الصرف (diptotes)
These are words containing 2 causes out of the 9 or only 1 that takes the place of 2
They accept neither تنوين nor a كسرة
+ - The 9 causes are:
in these words the form has changed from its original explicitly or implicitly
it will not come together with a form that is similar to a فعل but it can come with an علم أو وصف (proper nouns or a description).
It comprises these forms: فُعَال و مَفْعَل و فُعَل و فَعْلِ و فِعْلِ و فَعَالِ: ثُلاث و مَثلَث و أُخَر و جُمَع و عُمَر و أمس و سحر و قطام
its condition is that is was used as a description in its original coinage: مررت بنسوة أربَع and here أربع is منصرف because it was not originally used as a description.
it does not come together with an original علم (proper noun) however names may have been derived from words that were originally descriptions: أسوَد و أرقَم
It comes as an علم be it male or female and for the female it may be assumed: طلحة و زينب
+ - If it comes as a non foreign (= arabic) علم of 3 letters with a ساكن in the middle it can come either as منصرف أو غير منصرف: هندٌُ
+ - The following takes the place of 2 causes for being غير منصرف and that is if it comes with:
longer than 3 letters: إبرهيم but not لِجَام due to it not being a proper noun in the foreign language
3 letters long with the middle not being ساكن: شَتَر but not نوح as its middle is ساكن
Its condition is that is from the منتهى الجموع which comprises words which have after their الف الجمع only 2 letters: مساجد or a doubled letter: دوابّ or 3 letters the middle of which is ساكن for those words that do not accept a ة: مصابيح
It is also taking the place of 2 causes for being غير منصرف
Its condition is that is should be an علم but not in إضافة (construct phrase) nor in إسناد (sentence?): بعلبك و معدِ يْكَرُبَ
Its conditions is that it a words with a form which is specific to verbs: شمّر و ضُرب
When the form is not specific to verbs its condition is that is must start with one of the حروف المضارع and not accepting of a ة: أحمد و يشكُر و تغلِب و نرجِس
+ - Two categories have words that will decline when they are نكرة: جاءني طلحة و طلحةٌ آخَر
A كسرة will come will all words that are غير منصرف when they occur in a contruct phrase or have ال: مررت بأحمدكم و بالأحمد
+ - المرفوعات (The nominative words) which are 8 types:
+ - 1. الفاعل: It is an اسم coming after a فعل أو صفة which is connected to it in such a way that is exists with it and is not acted upon it: قام زيد و زيد ضارب أبوه عمروا
+ - Every فعل has a فاعل مرفوع which can be:
+ - مظهر (clearly visible): ذهب زيد in which case the فعل will always be singular: ذهب الزيدون
+ - If the فاعل is a مؤنث حقيقيّ (something which has a male counterpart from living things) the فعل will always be مؤنث: قامت هند
With broken plurals conforming to the gender is optional: قامت الرجال
+ - مضمر بارز (a visible pronoun): ضربتَُِ زيدا in which case the فعل will follow the number of the فاعل: الزيدون ذهبوا and the gender: الشمس طلعت or it can beمستتر (hidden): زيد ذهب
+ - A فعل متعدي will also have a مفعول: صرب زيد عمروا
Due to context either the فعل and also the فاعل may be omitted such as in replies to questions: من قام؟ زيد. أقام زيد؟ نعم
The مفعول may take the place of the فاعل in the فعل مجهول: ضُرب زيد
+ - When 2 فعلs dispute over a single اسم ظاهر the following applies:
+ - Al-Farraa disagrees and allows only the second فعل to take over in situation 1 and 3, due to the necessity of 1 of 2 things that are not allowed:
+ - The Basris give preference to the second فعل doing عمل on the basis of proximity.
Here the first فعل may be in need of a فاعل by way of a ضمير accordingly: ضربوني و أكرمني الزيدون and ضربوني و أكرمت الزيدين
LINK: If the first فعل is from the أفعال القلوب its مفعول must be visible: حسبني منطلقا و حسبت زيدا منطلقا else it may be deleted as in situation 2 and 4.
+ - The Kufis give preference to the first فعل doing عمل on the basis of first come first serve
Here the second فعل may be in need of a فاعل ضمير: ضربني و أكرموني الزيدون و ضربت و أكرموني الزيدين
If both فعلs are not from the أفعال القلوب then the مفعول of the second فعل may either be deleted or come as a ضمير: ضربت و أكرمتهم الزيدين
2. نائب الفاعل or مفعول ما لم يسمّ فاعله (The object where the subject is not mentioned): ضُرب زيد and it follows the same rules regarding the agreement of number and gender as the normal فاعل
+ - 3. المبتدأ و الخبر
+ - However if the نكرة has a صفة or other specification it may come as a مبتدأ: أ رجل في الدار أم امرأة و ما احد خير منك و في الدار رجل و سلام عليك
+ - It can also occur as a جملة: زيد أبوه قائم و زيد قام أبوه و زيد إن جاءني فأكرمته
زيد خلفك and here the ظرف will be connected to an assumed deleted verb such as استقر
These sentences will all need a ضمير that refers back to the مبتدأ but this may be deleted due to context: البُرّ الكُرّ بستّين درهما (The wheat, a measure (of it) costs 60 dirham) and deleted from it is the ضمير: منه
It may also be brought forward: قي الدار زيد
There may be more than 1: زيد عالم فاضل عاقل
+ - 5. خبر إنّ و أخواتها and its 5 sisters are: أنّ كأنّ لكنّ ليْت لعلّ
+ - 6. اسم كان و أخواتها TODO: link to section under الفعل
صار أصبح أمسى أضحى
These verbs enter upon a مبتدأ و خبر and render them مرفوع و منصوب respectively: كان زيد قائما
+ - The خبر may precede the اسم and even the verb itself except with the verbs that start with ما: قائما كان زيد
+ - 7. ما و لا that resemble ليس
+ - 8. لا لنفي الجنس (The la that negates the whole genus)
+ - المنصوبات and they are of 12 types:
+ - It is a مصدر with the meaning of a preceding verb and it is used for 3 things:
It may come from a different word or باب as the verb that is used: قعدت جلوسا و أنبت نباتا
The verb may be deleted due to context like it is said to one arriving: خير مقدم from قدمت قدوما خير مقدم
The verb must be deleted due to common usage: شكرا و حمدا for شكرتك شكرا و حمدتك حمدا
1. Due to common usage: امرأً و نفسَه for اترك امرأ و نفسه or أهلا و سهلا for أتيت أهلا لا أجانب و طيت سهلا من البلاد لا حزنا and other phrases that can be deduced like this.
2. التحذير (Warning) where it is understood with an implied اَتّقِ: إيّاك والأسدَ and it may also be mentioned with repetition: الطريق الطريق
3. On the condition that it is followed by an explanation: زيدا ضربته and this type has many branches.
+ - LINK: to other section(s) on the vocative 4. المنادى (the vocative)
There are 5 particles: TODO
+ - The إعراب of the منادى in the following cases is:
مجرور بلام or منصوب بالف when seeking help: يا لزيدٍ! و يا زيدَاهْ
+ - Upon its normal علامة المرفوع when it comes:
+ - منصوب with
Either مرفوع or with its original letters after cutting of the last part of a name when calling حارس: يا حارُ أو يا حارِ
The particle has the meaning of أدعو أو أطلب
It may be omitted in speech: زيدُ اجلس هنا TODO: better example
It is also used for mourning and wailing together with وا which is specifically for it: يا زيداه و وا زيداه and the ruling for its إعراب is the same as for the normal منادى
It explains the reason for the aforementioned فعل and it is منصوب due to the assumption of a لام: ضربته تأديبا for للتأديب
Indicates the state of the فاعل or the مفعول, or both: جاءني زيد راكبا و ضربت زيدا مشدودا و لقيت عمروا راكبين
Its فاعل may be implied, such as with اشارة or omitted completely: زيد في الدار قائما with the verb استقرّ deleted or: هذا زيد قائما which means: المشار إليه قائما هو زيد
+ - Its عامل is a فعل or aشبه فعل or any word that can have the meaning of a فعل: هذا زيد قائما with the meaning of أنبّه و أشير TODO: include list and explain more?
It may be deleted due to context as is said to the traveller: سالما غانما with the verb ترجع deleted.
It is always نكرة and the ذو الحال mostly معرفة.
When the ذو الحال is نكرة it must precede the حال: جائني راكبا رجل to avoid confusion of it being a صفة: رأيت رجلا راكبا (I saw a man who was in the state of riding) as opposed to رأيت راكبا رجلا: (I saw a male rider?) TODO: check translations of these
It may also be a جملة خبرية: جاءني زيد و غلامه راكبا أو يركب غلامه
It is mentioned after إلّا or its sisters and it excludes something from the مستثنى منه (what is mentioned before it)
+ - It has 2 types
+ - It declines in 4 ways:
+ - 1. منصوب if it is:
1a. متّصل and comes after إلّا with a موجب (positive statement not a negative, question or prohibition): جاءني القوم إلّا زيدا
1b. منقطع
1c. brought forward upon the مستثنى منه: ما جاءني إلّا زيدا أحد
1d. After خلا و عدا according to the majority
+ - 1e. After ما خلا و ما عدا و ليس و لا يكون: جاءني القوم خلا زيدا
+ - 2-3. After إلّا with a غير موجب (negative statement or prohibition or question) and the مستثنى منه is:
mentioned: it can be منصوب or بدل of the مستثنى منه: ما جاءني أحد إلّا زيدًا أو زيدٌ
مفرّغ (not mentioned): According to the normal إعراب without إلّا: ما جاءني إلّا زيد و ما رأيت إلّا زيدا و ما مررت إلّا بزيد
+ - 4. مجرور according to the majority if it is after غير و سِوَى و سواء و حاشا: جاءني القوم غير زيد
غير was initially coined as a صفة (“other than”) but can also be used for exclusion and likewise إلّا has sometimes been used for a صفة with the meaning of غير: لا إله إلّا الله as usually إلّا is used for universal concepts (which are groups of things).
It becomes the مسند: كان زيد قائماً
Its rulings are the same as for the خبر of a مبتد except that a معرفة may preceed the اسم: كان القائمَ زيدٌ
It becomes the مسند إليه
It may come as a نكرة مضافة: لا غلامَ رجل في الدار or it can resemble it: لا عشرين درهما في الكيس
If it comes as a single نكرة it will have a فتحة: لا رجلَ في الدار
If it comes as a معرفة or a نكرة with something between it and لا it will be مرفوع and لا will have to be mentioned again with another اسم which will follow the same إعراب: لا زيدٌ في الدار ولا عمروٌ و لا فيها رجلٌ و لا امرأةٌ
The اسم may be deleted due to context: لا عليك for لا بأس عليك
It becomes the مسند: ما زيد قائماً و لا رجل حاضراً and this is for the language of the people of حجاز.
Its action is negated if it comes after إلّا: ما زيد إلّا قائم or when the خبر is brought before the اسم: ما قائم زيد or if إنْ has been added: ما إن زيد قائم
In the language of بنو تميم the ما و لا don't have any action from the outset.
+ - المجرورات
It comprises the مضاف اليه only. In it is contained an explicit حرف الجر: مررت بزيد or an implicit one: غلام زيد for: غلام لزيد
From the مضاف are deleted the following: تنوين or what takes its place like نون التثنية والجمع: جائني غلامُ زيد و غلاما زيد و مسلمو مصر
+ - There are 2 types of إضافة
+ - معنوية in which the مضاف is not a صفة and this contains the meaning of a حرف الجر be it a لام أو مِنْ أو في: غلام زيد و خاتم فضة و صلاة الليل
Its benefit is knowing the مضاف to be معرفة when the مضاف إليه is معرفة or to have something specified when the مضاف إليه is نكرة: غلام رجل
اللفظية: The مضاف here is a صفة connected to the word it affects with separation and easing pronunciation its goal: ضارب زيد و حَسَنُ الوجه
+ - الإضافة الى الياء المتكلم
When a اسم صحيح (an اسم without any حرف علة) or TODO is made مضاف to الياء المتكلم the end receives a كسرة and the ياء either a ساكن او فتحة: غلامي و دلوي و ظبيي
If an اسم ends with an الف it remains: عصاي و رحاي contrary to what الهذيل claims: عصيّ و رحيّ
If an اسم ends with an ياء مكسور they are assimilated due to التقاء الساكنين and the ياء المتكلم receives a فتحة as in the case with قاضي: قاضيّ
If an اسم ends with an واو مضموم it is changed into a ياء and becomes like the other cases: جاءني مسلميّ
The اسماء الستة become like follows: أخي و أبي و حمي و هني و فيّ or فمي according to a some and when not in an إضافة they are أخ و أب و حم و هن و فم و ذو however ذو always comes in an إضافة but not to a ضمير except in rare cases: TODO example?
+ - التوابع (followers: and their declension is not due to any عامل acting on them, but solely due to following a preceding word)
+ - 1. النعت (or صفة)
+ - a quality of the followed word: جاءني رجل عالم. It follows the متبوع in 10 things:
something connected to it: جاءني رجل عالم أبوه (A man came, whose father was knowledgable). It only follows in the first 5 items: (النساء:٧٥)ق:مِن هَذِهِ الْقَرْيَةِ الظَّالِمِ أَهْلُهَا
Not a ضمير nor can a ضمير be a نعت
1. specifying the منعوت when it is نكرة . Note that the نعت may also be a جملة خبرية: مررت برجل أبوه عالم/ قام أبوه
2. clarifying the منعوت when it is معرفة
3. for praise only: بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
4. for ridicule/dispraise: أعوذ بالله من الشيطات الرجيم
5. for emphasis: (ق:نَفْخَةٌ وَاحِدَةٌ(الحاقة:١٣
+ - 2. العطف بالحرف (or عطف النسْق)
That this attribution is what is intended as it might also be عطف الجمل
That one of the 10 حروف العطف is between it and its متبوع: قام زيد و عمرو
If the متبوع is a مجرور pronoun, the حرف الجرّ has to be repeated: مررت بك و بزيد: Rule of thumb: only if the معطوف can be a substitute for the معطوف عليه then it will follow it in being either a صفّة أو خبر أو صلة أو حال else it can't.
Two معمولs of two different عاملs may be joined if the معطوف عليه is مجرور مقدّم: في الدار زيد و الحجرةِ عمرو: Farraa allows this even when it is not مقدّم and Sibuwayh doesn't allow any of this.
+ - 3. التأكيد
It is used to firmly establish an attribute of the متبوع or to indicate that every part/individual of a universal concept falls under the same ruling.
1. لفظيّ (explicitly): By repeating the first word: جاءني زيد زيد و جاء جاء زيد
+ - 2. معنويّ (implicitly): By using a number of words:
النفس و العَين for singulars, duals and plurals by changing the form and its pronoun: جاءني زيد نفسُه و الزيدان انفسهما أو نفساهما and a ضمير مرفوع متّصل must be brought with its منفصل form: ضربت أنت نفسُك
كِلا و كِلتا for the masc. and fem. duals
+ - كلٌّ و أجمَعُ و أكتَعُ و أبتَعُ و أبصَعُ. for other than duals by changing the ضمير for كلّ and the form in the others: جاءني القوم كلّهم أجمعون أكتعون و قامت النساء كلّهنّ جُمَعُ كُتَعُ
+ - 4. البدل (apposition or substitution) here the تابع is the actual intended object instead of the متبوع and it has 4 types:
1. بدل الكل من الكل and it refers to the whole of the متبوع: جاءني زيد أخوك
2. بدل البعض من الكل and it refers to part of the نتبوع: ضربت زيدا رأسَه
3. بدل الاشتمال which refers to something that is attached to the متبوع: سُلب زيد ثوبُه
4. بدل اغلط which is only in speech to correct a mistake: جاءني زيد جعفر
Only in the case when you have a بدل نكرة and a متبوع معرفة it must come with a نعت: ق:بالنّاصِيَةِ نَاصِيَةٍ كَاذِبَةٍ
+ - 5.عطف البيان: here the تابع is not a صفة of the متبوع but rather a clarification with the more famous of 2 names for something and the متبوع is the intended object: قام أبو حفْص عمر و قام عبد الله بن عمر
It may be confused with بدل الكل in the meaning of a sentence, depending on whether the intended object is the تابع or the متبوع
It may not be confused explicitly as in: أنا ابنُ التاركِ البَكريِّ بِشرٍ (here بشر cannot substitute البكري)
+ - الأسم مبني (also known as اسم غير متمكِّن)
1. Words that come by themselves and are potentially معرب but alone are مبني upon رفع: زيد, أ, ب, واحد, اثنان
2. Words that resemble the مبني الأصل in that they were never معرب originally but only receive a meaning with a context like the اسم الإشارة or if they have less than 3 letters or if they contain the meaning of a حرف such as: ذا و مَنْ و أحد عشر إلى تسعةِ عشرَ
+ - 1. المضمرات (pronouns)
These are words that refer back to the 1st, 2nd or 3rd person if they have been previous mentioned explicitly, implicitly or according to the ruling (TODO explain ruling)
+ - It has 2 types:
+ - 1. متصل: These are always connected to another word and they can be منصوب و مرفوع و مجرور :ضربت ضربني و إنّني و غلامي و لي
There are 2 hidden for the مرفوع state in the ماضي: ضرب و ضربت and 5 in the مضارع: أضرب و نضرب و تضرب و يضرب and it is generally hidden when it comes as a صفة (TODO explain صفة)
2 additional ضميرs have been identified that create attention in the audience: ضمير الشان which explains the matter at hand: (قُل هو الله أحد) and ضمير القصة which explains a story: إنّها زينب قائمة
+ - 2. منفصل: They come alone and can be مرفوع و منصوب: أنا و أعطيته إيّاي
It may only be used if there is a difficulty in using the متصل: (إيّاك نَعْبُد) و ما ضربك إلّا أنا و أنا زيد و ما أنت إلّا قائما
A ضمير الفصل is inserted between a مبتدأ معرفة and either a خبر or تفضيل with من to avoid confusion of it being a موصوف و صفة pair which would be an incomplete sentence: زيد هو القائم و كان زيد هو أفضل من عمرو
+ - 2. الأسماء الإشارة
+ - 3. الاسم الموصول
It can only be understood with its corresponding جملة خبرية which is called its صلة and must contain an عائد (something that refers back) to the موصول: جاء الّذي أبوه قائم أو قام أبوه
For مذكر: الّذي و and for its dual: اللّذان و اللّذَين and its جمع: الّذِين و الْأُلى
For مؤنث:الّتي and its dual: اللّتان و اللّتَين and its جمع: اللاتي و اللوَاتي و اللّاءِ و اللّائِي
+ - Others:
ما و مَنْ و أيّ و أيّة of which the latter 2 are مضاف
The ال with the meaning of اللّذي when its صلة is a اسم الفاعل و مفعول: جاءني الضارب زيدا و جاءني المضروب غلامه
The tribe called بني طيّ also use ذو in the meaning of اللّذي: فإنّ الماء ماء أبي و جدّي و بئري ذو حفرت و ذو طويت with the meaning of اللّذي حفرته و اللّذي طويته
The عائد may be omitted if it comes as a مفعول: قام اللّذي ضربت for ضربته
أي و أية are معرفة except when the beginning of their صلة has been deleted: TODO: example
+ - 4. أسماء الأفعال (Noun verbs)
These are nouns in the meaning of an أمر أو ماضي: رُوَيْدَ زيدا for أمْهِلْه and هَيْهَاتَ زيد for بعُد
+ - Also comes on the scale of فَعالِ with the meaning of أمر and these are deducible from the triliteral verbs: نَزَالِ for إنزِل and تَراكِ for أترُك
However, this scale is also used for a مصدر معرفة: فَجارِ for الفجور or a feminine description when used with the vocative only: يا فَساقِ أو لَكاعِ for فاسقة و لاكعة or it is an actual feminine name: قطام و غلاب و حضار
5. الأصوات (Onomatopoeia), words that describe sounds: غاق for a crow or words used for calling animals: نَخّ for the sitting of a camel.
+ - 6. المركبات (compound nouns): words made by joining 2 words that are not related
If the second word contains a حرف the words are مبني with a فتحة: أحد عشر و تسعة عشر else the most eloquent way is to give the first a فتحة and the second according to غير منصرف: بَعْلَبَكَّ
+ - 7. الكنايات (placeholders): words that indicate an unknown quantity or reference: كم و كذا and كَيْتَ و ذَيْتَ (such and such/blah blah) but فلان و فلانة for names are معرب
+ - is of 2 types:
1. استفهامية: what follows is a singular منصوب تمييز: كم رجلا عندك؟
2. خبرية: is followed by a singular or pluralمجرور: كم مالٍ أنفقتُه! و كم رجالٍ لقيته and it indicates a myriad
من may enter both types: كم من رجل لقيته و كم من مال أنفقته
The تمييز may be deleted due to context: كم مالك for كم دنارا مالك؟ and كم ضربتُ for كم ضربةً ضربتُ
+ - It can be منصوب if it is:
مفعول به of a verb that follows it which doesn't already have a ضمير as مفعول: كم رجلا ضربت و كم غلامٍ ملكتُ
مصدر (as a مفعول مطلق؟): كم ضربةً ضربتَ؟ و كم َربةٍ ضربتُ
مفعول فيه: كم يوما سرتَ و كم يومٍ صمتُ
It can be مجرور if it is preceded by a حرف جر or a مضاف: بكم رجلا مررتُ و على كم رجل حكمتُ و غلام كم رجلا ضربت و مال كم سلبت
It will be مرفوع otherwise and then either a مبتدأ: كم رجلا أخوك و كم رجل ضربته or a خبر when it is a ظرف: كم يوما سفرُك و كم شهرٍ صومي
+ - 8. الظروف المبنية: The indiclinable adverbs
+ - They are of several types:
1. When cut of from their إضافة when the مضاف اليه is omitted: قبْلُ و بعْدُ و فوقُ و تحتُ (TODO:examples) but only if this is intented by the speaker else it may be معرب
2. حيثُ is usually مضاف to a جملة and sometimes to a single word: أما ترى حيثُ سهيل طالعا for مكان سهيل and the condition for … TODO is that it is مضاف to a جملة
3. إذا gives a meaning for future if it comes with a ماضي and it contains the meaning of a condition and after may come a جملة إسمية: آتيك إذا الشمس طالعة but preferably فعلية: آتيك إذا طلعت الشمس
It is also used for المفاجأة (surprise) after which a جملة إسمية comes: خرجت فإذا السبُعُ واقف
4. إذ is used for the ماضي and can be followed by a جملة فعلية أو خبرية: جئتك إذ طلعت الشمس و إذ الشمس طالعة
5. أَيْنَ و أَنّى used for مكان in استفهام: أين تمشي؟ و أنّى تقعد؟ and can also indicate a condition: أين تجلس أجلس و أنّى تقم أقم
6. متى for شرط أو استفهام: متى تصم أصم و متى تسافر؟
7. كيف for questioning about a state: كيف أنت؟ for في أي هال أنت؟
8. أيّان for questioning about a time: أيّان يوم الدين?
9. مذ و مُنْذُ and they can either indicate the start of a time or total duration of a time: ما رأيته مذ أو منذ يوم الجمعة و مذ أو منذ يومين as reply depending on how the question was asked.
10. لدى و لَدُن in the meaning of عند: المال لديك with the difference that عند does not require the actual presence of the thing mentioned
11. قطّ: negates the past entirely: ما رأيته قطّ
12. عَوْضَُِ: negates the future entirely: لا أضربه عوض
13. أمسِ with a كسرة with the people of الحجاز
If a ظرف is made مضاف to a جملة it may receive a فتحة: يوْمَُ ئذ و حينئذ and likewise مِثْلُ و غَيْرُ when they come with ما و أنْ و أنّ: ضربته مثلَُ ما ضرب زيد و غيرَُ أنَّ ضرب زيد
+ - Conclusion
+ - 1. An اسم is of 2 types:
1. المضمرات (pronouns)
2. الأعلام (proper nouns): That what has been coined for something and cannot be described with any other single word
3. المبهمات (unspecified things): أسماء الإشارات (relative pronouns) and الموصولات (demonstrative pronouns)
4. المعرف باللام
5. A مضاف to any of the above in مضاف معنوية
6. المعرف بالنداء: What is specified by calling
+ - 2. أسمء العدد (The numbers): What has been coined to indicate the quantity of singular things and it has 12 basic words: واحدة إلى عشرة و مائة و ألف
+ - 1 and 2 agree with the gender of the counted object: رجل واحد و رجلان اثنان و امرأة واحدة و امرأتان اثنتان
They occur as صفة and there is no مميز as the words themselves do not need the number to be mentioned: عندي رجل و رجلان
+ - 3 till 10 disagree with the gender of the مميز: ثلالثة رجال و عشرة رجال و ثلاث نِسوَة و عشر نسوة
The مميز is مجرور and plural except for مائة where it remains singular: ثلاث مائة و ثلاث مآت و ثلاث مِئِين
10 till 19 in which the مميز will be singular منصوب: أحد عشر رجلا و اثنا عشر رجلا و ثلاثة عشر رجلا إلى تسعة عشر رجلا و إحدى عشرة امرأة و اثنتا عشرة امرأة و ثلالث عشرة امرأة إلى تسع عشرة امرأة
With 20 and above the male and female forms are the same:عشرون رجلا أو امرأة إلى تسعين رجل أو امرأة و أحد و عشرون رجلا و إحدى و عشرون امرأة و اثنان و عشرون رجلا و اثنتان و عشرون امرأة و ثلاثة و عشرون رجلا و ثلاث و عشرون امرأة إلى تسعةً و تسعين رجلا و تسع و تسعين امرأة
100 and above in which the مميز will be singular and مجرور: مائة رجل أو امرأة و ألف رجل أو امرأة و مائتا رجل أو امرأة و ألفا رجل أو امرأة
Combining numbers: First come the thousands, then hundreds, then singulars, then tens: عندي ألف و مائة و أحد و عشرون رجلا و ألفان و مائتان و اثنان و عشرون رجلا و أربعة آلاف و تسع مائة و خمس و أربعون امرأة
+ - 3. The gender of an اسم
+ - It is masculine by default or feminine according to:
Femininity of an اسم is either حقيقي where a word has an actual male counterpart: امرأة و ناقة or لفظي otherwise: ظلمة و عين
+ - 4. Duals: nouns that have attached to their ending an ألف أو ياء and a ن with a فتحة before them: رجلان و رجلين
For the مقصور nouns, if an ألف was originally a و then it will return: عصا و عصوان else it will become a ي: رحى و رحيان و حبلى و حبليان
The ممدودة nouns, if the ء was originally there it remains: قرّاء و قراءآن and if it was for femininity it becomes a و: حمراء و حمروان and if it replaces a و or a ي it may either stay or change: كساوان أو كساءان
The ن must be deleted from a مضاف: جاءني غلاما زيد و مسلما مصرٍ
If a dual is مضاف to another dual then the first must be changed to a جمع: أَيْدِيَهما
+ - 5. Plurals
To indicate multiple entities by either changing a word or by intending it for words whose singulars and plurals are the same: فُلْك and words like قوم و رهْط even if they refer to single entities.
+ - مصحّح: when they contain the same form of the singular word:
+ - Masculine: with ـُونَ أو ـِينَ: مسلمُونَ و مسلمِينَ
For the منقوص the ي is deleted: قاضون و داعون and for the مقصور the ألف is deleted and a فتحة before it takes its place: مصطفَون and it is specific for intelligent being.
The ن is deleted from a مضاف: مسلمو مصرَ
Feminine: with ـَات: مسلمات but only when talking about a group that contains no males else it will be مسلمون and also not when the singular contains no ة: حائض و حامل unless it is not a صفة: هندات
مكسّر (broken plurals): They are on many patterns for the triliterals which are سماعي: رجال و أفراس و فلوس and for the quads: فَعَالِل و فَعَالِيل
Plurals themselves are also of 2 types: جمع قلّة and this is used for less then 10and is on the patterns of: أَفْعُل و أفعَال و أفعِلة و فِعلَة and the جمع كثرة is used for above 10. TODO: check correctness and add examples
+ - 6. المصدر (verbal noun): They indicate an occurrence and from them verbs are derived. Their form is unpredictable for the root triliteral verbs but deductable for the مزيد قيه
If it not a مفعول مطلق then like its verb it can make its فاعل مرفوع: أجبني قيام زيد or its مفعول منصوب: أجبني ضرب زيد عمروا but neither of them may precede the مصدر and it can also be a مضاف to both: كرهتُ ضرب زيد عمروًا أو عمرٍو زيدٌ
If it is a مفعول مطلق then only the verb before it does the action: ضربتُ ضربا عمروا
+ - 7. اسم الفاعل: It is the noun for the one that performs the action of the verb
It is on the scale of فاعِل for the regular triliterals and for the مزيد فيه the مضارع is taken then the حرف المضارع replaced by مُـ and the second to last letter is given a كسرة: مُدخِل و مُستخرِج
+ - It does the action of a فعل معروف for nouns that are indifinite:
The definite form can be used for all tenses: زيد الضارب أبوه عمروا الآن أو غدا أو أمس
+ - 8. اسم المفعول (the object): A noun indicating whom the action of the verbs falls upon
It comes in the regular triliterals on the scale of مفعول:مضروب explicitly or implicitly: مقُول و مرمِيٌّ or similar to the اسم الفاعل of the مزيد فيه but with ـَ on the second to last letter: مُدخَل و مُستخرَج
It does the action of the passive verb with the same conditions of the اسم الفاعل: زيد مضروب غلامه الآن أو غدا أو أمس
+ - 9. الصفة المشبّهة (noun derived from an adjective): It affirms the quality of the verb for something
Its pattern is not fixed but سماعي: حَسَن و صعْب و شُجَاع و شريف و ذلول
It action can occur in 18 (2x3x3) different situations: It comes with or with ال and then the affected word is a مضاف or it comes with or without ال and that word can then have the 3 regular case endings: جاءني زيد الحسن وجهَُِه and similarly: الحسن الوجهَُِ والحسن وجهًٌٍ و حسن وجهَُِه و حسن الوجهَُِ و حسن وجهًٌٍ
TODO: the 5 different types of
+ - 10. اسم التفضيل (the comparative and superlative): A noun that indicates for something that it has more than other than it.
For regular triliterals not indicating colours or defects it is on the scale of أفعَلُ: زيد أفضل الناس
For verbs indicating colours or defects or مزيد فيه it has to be constructed with another اسم التفضيل from the regular triliterals followed by the مصدر of that verb being منصوب as a تمييز: هو أشدّ استخراجا و أقوَى حُموةً و أقبح عَرَجًا
It is usually used for the فاعل but sometimes for the مفعول: أعذر و أشغل و أشهر
+ - It is used in 3 ways:
as a مضاف where making the number correspond is optional: زيد أفضل القوم و الزيدون أفضل أو أفضلو القوم
with مِن: زيد أفضل من عمرٍو and here the تفضيل must always be male singular: هند و الزيدان و المسامات أفضل من عمرو
+ - 1. ماضي
The past tense: what occurred before your time and it is مبني upon a فتحة unless it comes with a متحرك pronoun or a و in which case it ends in a ساكن or ضمة respectively: ضربَ و ضربْتَُِ و ضربُوا
+ - 2. مضارع
+ - It starts with one of the letters of أتين
These are with ضمة in the رباعي and the مزيد فيه which have 4 letters in their ماضي: يُدَحرِجُ و يُخرِجُ and they will have فتحة in all others.
May be preceded by لام تأكيد: إنّ زيدا لَيَقُومُ (aka لام الإبتداء) which only applies to the present.
It gives the meaning of joining the present with the future like the اسة فاعل which is why it is called مضارع (the similar one).
When preceded by س or سَوفَ it denotes the future and سوف may also be prefixed with the لام تأكيد
…
+ - It declines in 4 ways:
المرفوع: Its cause is strictly implied.
+ - منصوب: It is caused by 5 particles:
After علم (to know) it does not make a verb منصوب as أن implies a wish or desire (something unknown) whereas what follows after علم is something definitely known : TODO
After ظنّ (to think) you can choose to make a verb منصوب or not: ظننتُ أن سَيَقُومُ
1. After حتّى: أسلمتُ حتّى أدخُلَ الجَنّةَ
+ - 2. ِWith لام كَي: قام زيد ليذهبَ
3. With لام الجَحدِ which is used in خبر كان to emphasize a negative كان ماضي: TODO
+ - 4. With the ف that occurs in:
5. With the و that comes with all of the aforementioned: أَسلِمْ و تَسلِم
6. After أو that comes with the meaning of إلى أنْ أو إلّا أن: لأحبِسنّك أو تُعطيني حقّي (unless)
+ - 7. After واو العطف when the معطوف غليه is a clear اسم: أعجَبَني قيامُك و تَخرُجَ because أن renders it in the meaning of a an اسم
+ - مجزوم
لم: This changes the meaning from the present tense to the past negative tense
لمّا: idem but there is an expectation of the action after it and a duration before it: قام اﻷمير لمّا يركب. The فعل may be deleted with لمّا only: ندم زيد و لمّا
لام الأمر
لا
If the جزاء is ماضي without قد then the شرط may not start with a ف: إن أكرمتني أكرمْتك as also in:(وَ مَنْ دَخَلَه` ق:كَانَ آمِناً(آل عمران:٩٧
If the جزاء is مضارع in the affirmative (مثبت) or نفي بلا it may optionally start with ف: إن تضربْني أضربْك أو فأضربْك / إن تَشتِمني لا أضربْك أو فلا أضربْك
1. أمر: تَعَلَّمْ تنج
2. نهي: لا تَكذِبْ يكن خيراً لك
3. استفهام: هل تزورنا نُكرِمْكَ
4. التمنّي: لَيتَك عِندِي أخدِمْك
5. العرضُ (suggestion): ألا تنزِل بِنا تُصِب خيرا
6. And also with نفي in some places: لا تَفعلُ شرًّا يكن خيرًا لك and the assumption of إن at the beginning will prevent you from saying: لا تَكفُرَ تدخُل النار
+ - 3. أمر
+ - Passive verbs (فعل ما لم يُسمَّ فاعله)
In it the فاعل is deleted and the مفعول takes its place and this is specific to transitive (متعدّي) verbs
+ - Its signs:
+ - In the ماضي verbs the second to last letter has a كسرة and one of following:
Only the 1st letter has a ضمة in those بابs where the first letter is not a همزة الوصل: ضُرِبَ و دُحرِجَ و أُكرِمَ
The 1st and 2nd letter have a ضمة in those بابs where the first letter is a تاء زائدة: تُفُضِّلَ و تُضُورِبَ
The 1st and the 3rd letter have a ضمة in those بابs where the first letter is a همزة الوصل: اُستُخرِجَ و اُقتُدِرَ and the همزة will have the ضمة when it is not assimilated.
+ - In the مضارع, the حرف المضارع has a ضمة and the second to last letter has a كسرة: يُضرَبُ و يُسْتخْرَجُ
Except for those بابs where the ضمة is present by default so the only sign will be the كسرة: المفاعلة و الإفعال و التقعيل و القعللة و ملحقاتها الثمانية: يُحاصَبُ و يُدحْرَج
+ - Exception: الأجوف verbs:
+ - (In)transitive
With one مفعول only: ضرب زيدعمروًا
Or مفعولين: أعطى زيد عمروًا درْهما and this may be shorted to only 1: أعطيتُ زيدا او أعطيتُ درْهما except for علِمتُ
+ - Or 3 مفعولs: أعلم اللهُ زيدًا عمرًا فالاً and the other 6 are: أرى و أنْبأ و نبِّأ و أخْبَرَ و خبّر و حدّث
These may also be shorted to the first مفعول only: أعلم الله زيداً
The 2nd and the 3rd مفعول are like the مفعولين علِمتُ in that they must occur together, not only one of them.
+ - أفعال القلوب: They enter upon a مبتدأ و خبر and both are made منصوب: علِمتُ زيدا فاضلا و ظنَنتُ عمروا عالما
The مفعولين may not be shortned to a single مفعول as with أعطيتُ
The مفعولين may be omitted if the verb falls occurs between or after the مبتدأ و خبر: زيد ظننتُ عالم أو زيد قائم ظننتُ
+ - It may be attached to the front of:
The فاعل and the مفعول may both be attached pronouns: علمتَني منطلقا و ظننتُك فاضلا
+ - Some verbs can come with a different meaning and only one مفعول منصوب and they will not be from أفعال القلوب anymore.
ظننتُ بمعنى اتّهَمتُ و علمت بمعنى عرَفتُ و رأيتُ بمعنى أبصرتُ و وجدتُّ بمعنى أصَبتُ الضالة :TODO translation?
+ - الأفعال الناقصة : So called because they only indicate the time, not the meaning of the verb's مصدر and they come with a خبر منصوب
They are: كان و صار و أصبَحَ و أمسَىَ etc...
They enter upon a جملة اسميّة: كان زيد قائما
+ - كان comes in three forms:
1. ناقصة: This indicates that the خبر applies to the فاعل either in the past, perpetual or that it has discontinued: TODO
2. تامّة : it will have the meaning of ثبَتَ أو حَصَلَ: كان القِتَال
3. زائدة: it is extra and omitting it will not change the meaning of the sentence: TODO
صار is used to indicate a transition: صار زيد غنيّا او صار الطين حجرا
+ - أصبح و أمسى و أضحَى are used...
ظلّ و بات: indicate the time of the attached sentence, day or night: ظلّ زيد كاتبا and they also come with the meaning of صار
مازال و مافَتِئَ و مابَرِحَ و ماأنفَكَّ indicate the continuation of the existence of the خبر with regards to the فاعل: مازال زيد أميرا and it must come with a حرف النفي
مادام indicates the establishment of something for the time that its خبر persists: أقُومُ ما دام الأمير جالساً
لَيسَ indicates an absolute negation of the meaning of a sentence for either the present time or at all times: ليس زيد قائما and refer to the other notes on ليس
+ - الأفعال المقاربة: They indicate the closeness of the خبر in regards to the فاعل and they are of 3 types:
+ - 1. للرّجاء (for anticipation) with:
this verb is only used in the ماضي and its action is like كاد except that its خبر is a فعل مضارع with أن: عسى زيد أن يقوم (Zaid might stand) where عسى here is a فعل ناقصand أن may also be deleted.
the خبر may also precede the اسم: عسى أن يقوم زيد in which case it will be تامة without needing a خبر as here زيد is the فاعل of يقوم
+ - 2. للحصول (for setting in/occurring) with:
+ - 3. للأخذ و الشروع في الفعل (with the meaning of starting/beginning contained in the verbs) and they are:
+ - فعل التعجّب (The verb of wonder/amazement)
+ - it comes in two forms for those verbs which have a اسم تفضيل form:
+ - it will be obtained with others such as the مزيد فيه و الرباعي like so:
bringing forward the مفعول و المجرور or taking the فعل back or inserting anything between the two are all not allowed, but al Mazini has allowed allowed inserting a ظرف: ما أحسنَ اليوم زيدا
+ - أفعال المدح و الذمّ (Verbs of praise and dispraise)
its فاعل is a اسم معروف باللام: نعم الرجل زيد or it can be a مضاف to that اسم: نعم غلام الرجل زيد
if its فاعل is a ضمير it must be specified with a تمييز in the form of a نكرة منصوبة: نعم رجلا زيد or with ما:
and زيد here is called the المجصوص بالمدح
+ - 1. حروف الجرّ: It is placed to attain the result of an فعل and what resembles it or an implied فعل to what follows it. There are 19:
+ - 1. مِن: It is used:
+ - للإبتداء الغاية: to indicate the start towards an objective or end
للتبيين: for clarification where it may be replaced by الذي: TODO
للتبعيض: indicating a portion of piece of something where it may be replaced by بعض: كُلْ من الطعام أو أخذت من الدراهم
زائدة: extra where the meaning is the same when it is left out: ما جاءني من أحد and the Basris claim is not allowed in موجَب (positive/affirmative) statements, so only for نفي و الإستفهام contrary to what Kufis say.
2. إلى and it indicates the conclusion of the objective or end and something it has the meaning of مع: TODO
3. حتّى: and it is similar to من: نَمتُ البارحة حتّى الصباح and it often has the meaning of مع: قدم الحاجّ حتّى المُشاة and it has to come an explicit word and not with a ضمير contrary to what al-Mubarrad or some poets said.
4. في: it is used as a ظرف (preposition): زيد في الدار شىي and something it has the meaning of على: TODO
+ - 5. ب and it is for
1. للإلصاق : closeness in reality: به داء or for passing by: مررت بزيد (my walking passed close by the place of Zaid)
2. للاستعانة : for seeking aid: كتبت بالقلم
3. للتعليل أو للسببية for explanation or causality: الحمد لله الذي أنقذه بي من النار
4. للمصاحبة : for companionship: خرج زيد بعشيرته
5. للمقالبة: for exchange: بعتُ هذا بذاك TODO: better example here
6. للتعدية: to make an intransitve verb transitive: ذهبت بزيد
7. للظرفيّة: as a preposition: جلست بالمسجد
+ - 8. زائدة : where it comes extra and the meaning is understood by ignoring it in the following cases:
خبر النفي: ما زيد بقائم
قي الاستفهام: هل زيد بقائم
سماعا: used traditionally for a مرفوع: بحسبك زيد and ق:كَفَى بالله شهِيداً or for a منصوب: القى بيده (throw his hand; throw himself)
+ - 6. الام is used
+ - 7. رُبّ is used for indicating small numbers similar to how كم الخبرية indicates large numbers: ربّ رجل كريم لقِيتُه
+ - it may come with only the male singular ضمير with a تمييز نكرة منصوبة regardless of its number or gender: ربه رجالا
it may come with ما which blocks the effect of ربّ and it enters upon a جملة اسمية أو فعلية: TODO
8. واو رُبّ: TODO
+ - 9, 10, 11. حروف القسم which are used for swearing an oath by something followed by or near what is confirmed.
When it is affirmative it must have a لام when it is اسمية أو فعلية: والله لزيد بقائم و والله لأفعلنّ كذا or إنّ for اسمية: والله إنّ زيد لفائم
When it is negative it must come with لا أو ما: والله ما زيد بقائم و والله لا يقوم زيد and sometimes it is deleted: TODO
+ - 12 عن is used for passing over or through: رميت السهم عن القوسِ إلى الصيد
+ - 13. على is used for being over or above something: زيد على السطح
14. الكاف للتشبيه (The kaf for resemblence): زيد كعمروٍ and it can also come زائدة or as an اسم itself: TODO
15,16. مُذ و مُنذ which indicate either a starting time in the past: ما رأيته مذ رَجَبَ (I haven't seen him since the month of Rajab) or a time period in the present: ما رأيته مذ شهرنا و منذُ يومنا (I haven't seen him these months or these days)
TODO: Link to illa: 17,18,19. خلا و عدا و حاشا: they indicate استثناء (exclusion): جائني القوم خلا زيد و عدا بكرٍ و حاشا عمرو
+ - TODO: link appropriatelyالحروف مشبّهة بالفعل (Particles resembling verbs) تدخل على الجملة اسمية تنصب الاسم و ترفع الخبر
+ - 1. إنّ
+ - 2. أنّ:
+ - This is used when the emphasized word is a:
It may also be lightened similarly to إنّ and then it enters upon a جملة فعلية أو اسمية and with the former the verbs must come with السين أو سوف أو قدْ أو حرف النفي: بلغني أنْ زيد قائم و بلغني أنْ قد قام زيد
+ - 3. كأنّ is used for تشبيه (resemblance) and made up of الكاف التشبيه و إنّ: كأنّ زيد الأسد:
+ - 4. لكِنّ is used for استدراك (rectification) and it comes between two sentences that are different in meaning: ما جاء زيد لكنّ عمروا جاء و غاب زيد و لكنّ بكرا حاضر
+ - 5. ليت is used for تمنّى (wish/desire): ليت ئيدا قائم (I wish Zaid was standing)
+ - 6. لعلّ is used for ترجّى (hope): أُحِبُّ الصالحين و لستُ منهم لعلّ الله يرزقني صلاحا
+ - حروف العطف (particles that join) and they are 10
+ - 1-4: و ف ثمّ حتّى: These are for joining the معطوف عليه with its معطوف in their ruling.
و is for absolute joining: جاءني زيد و عمرو
ف is for a succession without delay: قام زيد فعمرو (Zaid stood up and then Amr)
ثمّ is for a succession with a delay: دخل زيد ثمّ عمرو (Zaid entered and Amr followed shortly after)
+ - TODO: link to previous mentioning حتّى is like ثمّ with the conditions that its معطوف is part of its معطوف عليه and it indicates its:
+ - 5-7: أو إمّا أم: These are for establishing something ambiguous which is one of two things and not any one in particular: مررت برجل أو امرأة
+ - إمّا is only an عطف if has come before in the sentence: العدد إمّا زوج و إمّا فرد (A number is either many or 1?)
and it may also come before أو: زيد إمّا كاتب أو أمّي (Zaid is either literate or illiterate)
when used in a question the answer has to be نعم أو لا: أ جاءك إمّا زيد أو عمر as the questioner wants confirmation of the coming of either one and not about who exactly came.
+ - أم is of 2 types:
+ - 1. متصلة (connected/continued/persistent) and with it the questioner can confirm something from an ambiguity and it is used with 3 conditions:
1. That it comes with a همزة: أ زيد عندك أم عمرو
2. The word after the همزة must be similar to the word after أم in it being an اسم أو فعل: أ قام زيد أم قعد
3. The answer must be affirming one of the two things mentioned in the question.
+ - 2. منقطعة It will mean بل with همزة الإستبهام and it is used to rectify a previous statement: You think you see a camel from far then doubt comes to you and you say:أم هي شاة with the meaning of بل أ هي شاة
This أم is only used in the خبر as mentioned or in a question: أ عندك زيد أم عمرو (Is Zaid with you or rather is Amr?) where you abandon Zaid and really only ask about Amr
+ - 8-10. لا بل لكنْ : These are all used to affirm one of two things.
لا is for TODO
بل is for abandoning the first and affirming the second: جاءني زيد بل عمرو و ما جاءني بكر بل خالد (Zaid and Khalid didn't come)
لكنْ is for rectification and a negation must either come after or before it: ما جاءني زيد لكن عمر جاء و قام بكر لكن خالد لم يقمْ
+ - حروف التنبيه (The particles for reminding/alerting) and they are 3:
+ - حروف النداء (Particles for calling) and they are 5:
+ - حروف الإجاب (The particles of answering) and they are 6:
1. نعم is for confirming what precedes it whether is was a affirmative or negative statement.
2. بلى is to confirm what preceded as a negative question or statement: لم يقمْ زيد و قلت بلى (Zaid did stand).
3. إي is for confirming a questioned and it must be followed by swearing an oath: هل كان كذا فقلت إي والله
4-6. أجل خير إنّ and they are used to confirm having faith in what has been said before.
+ - حروف الزائدة (The particles that come extra)
1. إنْ and it is added to ما النافية: ما إن زيد قائم أو ما إن مدحتُ محمدا بمقالتي لكن مدحت مقالتي بمحمد and sometimes to ما المصدرية: انتظر ما إن يجلس الأمير and with لمّا: TODO
2. أنْ and it is added to لمّا for time: TODO and between لو which has an oath that precedes it: والله أن لو قمتَ قمتُ
3. ما and it is added to the conditional particles إذا و متى و أيّ و أنّى و أين و إن such as in: إذا ما صمتَ صمتُ and also after some حروف الجرّ such as ب و ف و عن و من و ك
4. لا and it is added to واو after a negation: ما جاءني زيد و لا عمرو and after ما المصدرية: TODO and after the verb to swear an oath: TODO
LINK: to huroofu jar: 5-7. مِن و الباء واللام: see their section under حروف الجرّ
حرفا التفسير (The 2 explanatory particles): أي و أن by which you start an explanation of something that precedes it.
+ - حروف المصدر
1-2. ما و أنْ these are only used for a جملة فغلية: TODO
3. أنّ is used for a جملة اسمية: علمتُ أنّك قائم with the meaning of قيامك (I knew about your standing)
4-5. كي و لو have been included in this group by some.
+ - حروف التحضيض (Particles used for encouragement) and they are placed at the beginning of a sentence and only come with a فعل.
+ - 1-2. هلّا و ألّا
The فعل could also be implied if it is followed by anاسم: هلّا زيدا with the meaning of هلّا ضربتَ زيدا
3-4. لولا و لوما indicate the prevention of the second sentence due to the existence of the first: لولا عليّ لهلك عمر and the first sentence will always be اسمية
+ - حرف التوقّع The particle of expectation which is قد
تقريب (nearness in time): قد ركب الأمير (The Ameer was riding just a short while ago) and therefor e it is sometimes also called حرف التقريب (particle of nearness)
تأكيد (emphesis) if it is used to confirm a question: هل قام زيد؟ قد قام زيد
+ - حرفا الاستفهام (Interrogative particles)
+ - 1-2. هل و الهمزة and they come at the beginning of speech followed by either a جملة فعلية أو اسمية: أ زيد قائم أو هل قام زيد and usage with فعلية is the most common.
+ - حروف الشرط (Conditional particles) and they enter upon two sentences where either one can be a جملة اسمية أو فعلية
+ - 1. إنْ and it is used for the future even it comes with a فعل ماضي: إن زرتني أكرمتك
The verb may also be implied: إن أنت زائري فأنا أكرمتك
It is only used for doubtful matters and as for expected things you would use إذا: آتيك إذا طلعت الشمس
+ - LINK to حروف القسم: If it occurs with a قسم preceding it then the verb must be ماضي either explicitly or implicitly: والله إن أتيتني لأكرمتك أو والله إن لم تأتني لأهجرتك
Here the second part is the جواب القسم which has to come with a لام for positive statements or ما أو لا for negative statements but these may be omitted if the قسم occurs in the middle of the sentence: إنتأتني والله آتك.
+ - 2. لو is used for the past even it comes with a فعل مضارع: لو تزورني أكرمتك
Like إن its verb may also be implied
LINK to لو لا above: It indicates the negation of the second sentence caused by the negation of the first.
+ - 3. أمّا is used for elaborating what preceded it as a summary: الناس سعيد و شقّي: أما الذين سعدوا ففي الجنّة و أمّا الذين شقوا ففي النار
It must come with the ف in its جواب
The جواب must be caused by what is before it.
The فعل may be deleted as long as is also deleted in the other part: أمّا زيد فمنطلق which means: مهما يكن من شيء فزيد منطلق
+ - حرف الردع (The preventative particle): كلّا
+ - تاء التنيث الساكنة
+ - التنوين (Nunnation) It is a نون ساكن that is added to the end of a word but not for emphasis of a فعل and it has 5 types:
+ - 1. للتمكّن (For the declinable?) and it is also called تنوين الصرف because it indicates that an اسم is منصرف: زيدٌ
It is sometimes deleted from a علم (proper noun) when it comes with ابن أو ابنة followed by another علم to shorten the speech: جائني زيد بن عمرو أو هند ابنة بكر
2. للتنكير (For indefiniteness) and it indicates that an اسم is نكرة: TODO
3. للعوض (To substitute) and it is used to replace a مضاف اليه المحذوف: حينئذٍ و ساعَتَئِذٍ و يومئذ which means: حين إذ كان كذا
4. للمقابلة (As a comparison) and it is in the جمع مؤنث سالم: مسامات as a counterpart of the ن in the جمع مذكر سالم: مسلمون
+ - نون التأكيد (The ن for emphasis)
LINK: to قد: It is used for the أمر و مضارع when they indicate a request similarly to قد for the فعل ماضي
+ - It has 2 types:
It does not occur for the تثنية و جمع المؤنّث as these forms cannot be resolved with the rules of اجتماع الساكنين
LINK to relevant sections: It may also enter upon النهي و الاستفهام و التمنى و العرض و العرض as all of these contain a request: لا تضربنّ و هل تضربن و ليتك تضربنّ و ألا تنزِلنَّ بنا فتصيب خيرا TODO: some better examples
It can also enter upon the swearing of an oath to emphasise its latter part as the oath itself also contains emphasis: ولله لأفعلنّ كذا
+ - The letter preceding it will have a فتحة unless it has a: