Hidayatun Nahw

Hidayatun Nahw
- About نحو
  - Definition: It is a science with principles with which are known the case endings of the 3 types of words where it concerns declinable and non declinable words and the method of how they are ordered with each other. The objective is to avoid mistakes in the speech of the Arabs.
  - It concerns two objects:
    - الكلمة: it is an utterance with a single meaning and it comprises 3 types:
      - اسم .1
        
        حدّه (its definition) It has a meaning which is not dependant on any of the 3 times: الماضي أو الحال أو الإستقبال
        
        علامته (its signs) are 10:
        
        1. يصحّ الإخبار عنه (Information is given about it): a judgement is made about it due to it being either a فاعل أو مفعول أي نائب فاعل أو مبتدأ: زيد قائم
        
        2. ألإضافة (construct phrase): غلام زيد
        
        3. لام التعريف: الرجل
        
        4 & 5. جرّ و تنوين: بزيدٍ
        
        6. التثنية: رجلان
        
        7. الجمع: طالبون
        
        8. النعت: رجل عالم
        
        9. التصغير: رُجَيل
        
        10. النداء: يا زيدُ
      - 2. فعل: It has a meaning which is connected to one of 3 time frames and its meaning is given by its مصدر
        
        علامته (its signs) are 10:
        
        1. It gives information about something and it not informed about.
        
        2-5. The entering of قد و السين و سَوفَ و الجزم
        
        6. Its form is changed to make it ماضي أو مضارع
        
        7. It can be a أمر أو نهي
        
        8. The attachment of the ضمير المرفوع البارز (the visible nominative pronoun): ضربتَُِ
        
        9. The تاء التأنيث الساكن: ضربتْ
        
        10. The two نونs of emphasis: ليضربنّ و ليضربنْ
      - 3. حرف: It has no meaning in itself but indicates a meaning in something else. It is not specifically intended such as مسند و مسند إليه rather it comes on the side (حرف أو طرف)
        
        علامته (its signs)
        
        1. No information is given about it nor does it inform about anything else.
        
        2. None of the signs of the فعل أو أسم are present.
        
        It is used to connect:
        
        two اسمs: زيد قي الدار
        
        two فعلs: أريد أن تَضربَ
        
        اسم و فعل: ضربتُ بالخشبة
        
        two sentences: إن جاءني زيد أكرَمتُه
        
        Others, see section of الحرف
    - الكلام
      - Definition: speech in which 2 words are joined with a connection between them, from one to the other, so that it forms a complete statement or sentence.
- الاسم
  - المعرب (the declinable noun)
    - Its principles:
      - 1. It is every noun that is joined with something else (in a sentence, not by itself) and it does not resemble an intrinsic مبني which are: الحرف و الأمر الحاضر و الماضي
      - 2. Its rulings are:
        
        that its case ending changes by different عاملs either:
        
        explicitly in speech: قام زيد و رأيت زيدا و مررت بزيد
        
        or in its ruling as in: رأيت أحمد و مررت بأحمد
        
        or implicitly: قام موسى و رأيت موسى و مررت بموسى
        
        الإعراب (the case ending) are those things by which the end of the معرب changes and it of 3 types: رفع و نصب و جر and the عاملs are those things that effect these case endings.
        
        Only the الاسم المتمكّن و الفعل المضارع are declined in the Arabic language
      - 3. The categories of إعراب الاسم are 9:
        
        1. رفع بالضمة و نصب بالفتحة و جرّ بالكسرة and this is specific for الاسم المفرد المنصرف الصحيح which are those words that don't end in weak or double letters unless it ends in واو أو ياء and the letter before it is a ساكن like زيد و دلْو و ظبْي and those words which are جمع مكسر منصرف (declinable broken plurals) like رجال
        
        2. رفع بالضمة و نصب و جرّ بالكسرة and this is specific for جمع مؤنث سالم (sound feminine plural)
        
        3.TODO: link to diptote explanation رفع بالضمة و نصب و جرّ بالفتحة and this is specific for غير منصرف أو ممنوع من الصرف (diptotes)
        
        4. رفع بالواو و نصب بالألف و جرّ بالياء and this is specific for 6 nouns when singular and not in their تصغير form nor connected with ياء المتكلم
        
        5. رفع بالألف و نصب و جرّ بالياء المفتوح ما قبله and this is specific to duals
        
        The نون is always مكسور and drops in إضافة: جائني غلاما زيد
        
        6. رفع بالواو المضموم ما قبله و نصب و جرّ بالياء المكسور ما قبله and this is specific for جمع مذكر سالم (sound male plural) and أولو and the numbers عشرون and its likes.
        
        The نون is always مفتوح and drops in إضافة: جائني مسلمو مصر
        
        7. رفع بتقدير الضمة و نصب بتقدير الفتحة و جرّ بتقدير الكسرة: (with the assumption of ضمة …) and this is specific to words ending with an الف مقصورة and the words that are مضاف إلى ياء المتكلم other than the جمع مذكر سالم: جاءني العصا و غلامي و رأيت العصا و غلامي
        
        8. رفع بتقدير الضمة و نصب بالفتحة لفظا و جرّ بتقدير الكسرة and this is specific to the منقوص which are those words that end in a ياء after a كسرة: جاني القاضي و رأيت القاضيَ و مررت بالقاضي
        
        9. رفع بالتقدير الضمة و نصب و جرّ بالياء لفظا and this is specific to جمع مذكر سالم مضاف إلى ياء المتكلم: جاني مسلميّ و رأيتمسلميّ و مررت بمسلميّ
    - منصرف (triptotes) These are most normal words that don't contain any 2 causes of the غير منصرف words or 1 of their causes other than those that count for 2 and such a word is also called اسم متمكن or متمكن امكن: A noun that is able (to be declined) and its ruling is that it accepts the 3 case endings with تنوين
    - غير منصرف or ممنوع من الصرف or متمكن غير امكن (diptotes) the nouns for which declension has been prevented.
      - These are words containing 2 causes out of the 9 or only 1 that takes the place of 2
      - They accept neither تنوين nor a كسرة
      - The 9 causes are:
        
        1. العدل (change)
        
        in these words the form has changed from its original explicitly or implicitly
        
        it will not come together with a form that is similar to a فعل but it can come with an علم أو وصف (proper nouns or a description).
        
        It comprises these forms: فُعَال و مَفْعَل و فُعَل و فَعْلِ و فِعْلِ و فَعَالِ: ثُلاث و مَثلَث و أُخَر و جُمَع و عُمَر و أمس و سحر و قطام
        
        2. الوصف (a description)
        
        its condition is that it was used as a description in its original coinage: مررت بنسوة أربَع and here أربع is منصرف because it was not originally used as a description.
        
        it does not come together with an original علم (proper noun) however names may have been derived from words that were originally descriptions: أسوَد و أرقَم
        
        3. التنيث بالتاء (The feminine form with a ة)
        
        Its conditions are one of the following:
        
        It comes as an علم be it male or female and for the female it may be implied: طلحة و زينب
        
        If it comes as a non foreign (= Arabic) علم of 3 letters with a ساكن in the middle it can come either as منصرف أو غير منصرف: هندٌُ
        
        However if the name is foreign it will have to be غير منصرف: ماه و جُور (names of 2 villages)
        
        The following takes the place of 2 causes for being غير منصرف and that is if it comes with:
        
        1. الف مقصورة: حُبلى و دُنيا
        
        2. الف ممدودة: حَمراء
        
        4. المعرفة (definiteness)
        
        It refers to an علم and it can join all other causes except the وصف
        
        5. العُجْمَة (foreign = non-Arabic)
        
        Its condition is that is an علم في العجمة (proper noun in a foreign language) with it being either:
        
        longer than 3 letters: إبرهيم but not لِجَام due to it not being a proper noun in the foreign language
        
        3 letters long with the middle not being ساكن: شَتَر but not نوح as its middle is ساكن
        
        6. الجمع (plural)
        
        Its condition is that it is from the منتهى الجموع which comprises words which have after their الف الجمع only 2 letters: مساجد or a doubled letter: دوابّ or 3 letters the middle of which is ساكن for those words that do not accept a ة: مصابيح
        
        It also takes the place of 2 causes for being غير منصرف
        
        7. التركيب (compound word)
        
        Its condition is that is should be an علم but not in إضافة (construct phrase) nor in إسناد (sentence?): بعلبك و معدِ يْكَرُبَ
        
        8. الالف و النون الزائدتان
        
        If they occur in an اسم its condition is that it is an علم: عثمان و عمران
        
        If they occur in a صفة then its conditions is that it has no female counterpart with a ة: سَكران
        
        9. وزن الفعل (The pattern of a verb)
        
        Its conditions is that it is a word with a form which is specific to verbs: شمّر و ضُرب
        
        When the form is not specific to verbs its condition is that is must start with one of the حروف المضارع and not accepting of a ة: أحمد و يشكُر و تغلِب و نرجِس
      - Two categories have words that will decline when they are نكرة: جاءني طلحة و طلحةٌ آخَر
        
        1. The causes which contain the condition of علمية due to there not remaining a cause left
        
        2. Those causes that only join with 1 other cause: TODO: some more examples here
      - A كسرة will come with all words that are غير منصرف when they occur in a construct phrase, be it مضاف or مضاف اليه or have ال: مررت بأحمدكم و بالأحمد
  - المرفوعات (The nominative words) which are 8 types:
    - 1. الفاعل: It is an اسم coming after a فعل أو صفة which is connected to it in such a way that is exists with it and is not acted upon it: قام زيد و زيد ضارب أبوه عمروا
      - Every فعل has a فاعل مرفوع which can be:
        
        مظهر (clearly visible): ذهب زيد in which case the فعل will always be singular: ذهب الزيدون
        
        If the فاعل is a مؤنث حقيقيّ (something which has a male counterpart from living things) the فعل will always be مؤنث: قامت هند
        
        unless there is a separation in which case there is a choice: ضرب اليوم هند
        
        Likewise for the مؤنث غير حقيقيّ: طلع الشمس
        
        With broken plurals conforming to the gender is optional: قامت الرجال
        
        مضمر بارز (a visible pronoun): ضربتَُِ زيدا in which case the فعل will follow the number of the فاعل: الزيدون ذهبوا and the gender: الشمس طلعت or it can beمستتر (hidden): زيد ذهب
        
        With broken plurals conforming to the gender is optional: الرجال قامت أو قاموا
      - A فعل متعدي will also have a مفعول: صرب زيد عمروا
        
        The فاعل may come after the مفعول: ضرب عمروا زيد unless both are مقصور: ضرب عيسى موسى
      - Due to context either the فعل and also the فاعل may be omitted such as in replies to questions: من قام؟ زيد. أقام زيد؟ نعم
      - The مفعول may become a نائب الفاعل: It will take the place of the فاعل with a فعل مجهول: ضُرب زيد
      - When 2 فعلs dispute over a single اسم ظاهر the following applies:
        
        There are 4 possible combinations of dispute:
        
        1. The فاعل only: ضربني و أكرمني زيد
        
        2. The مفعول only: ضربت و أكرمت زيدا
        
        3. فاعل و مفعول: ضربني و أكرمت زيدٌاً
        
        4. مفعول و فاعل: ضربت و أكرمني زيد
        
        In these cases either of the فعلs may take action
        
        الفراء disagrees and allows only the second فعل to take over in situation 1 and 3, due to the necessity of 1 of 2 things that are not allowed:
        
        1. Deletion of the فاعل
        
        2. Mentioning the ضمير before mentioning what it refers to.
        
        The Basris give preference to the second فعل doing عمل on the basis of proximity.
        
        Here the first فعل may be in need of a فاعل by way of a ضمير accordingly: ضربوني و أكرمني الزيدون and ضربوني و أكرمت الزيدين
        
        LINK: If the first فعل is from the أفعال القلوب its مفعول must be visible: حسبني منطلقا و حسبت زيدا منطلقا else it may be deleted as in situation 2 and 4.
        
        The Kufis give preference to the first فعل doing عمل on the basis of first come first serve
        
        Here the second فعل may be in need of a فاعل ضمير: ضربني و أكرموني الزيدون و ضربت و أكرموني الزيدين
        
        If both فعلs are not from the أفعال القلوب then the مفعول of the second فعل may either be deleted or come as a ضمير: ضربت و أكرمتهم الزيدين
    - 2. نائب الفاعل or مفعول ما لم يسمّ فاعله (The object where the subject is not mentioned): ضُرب زيد and it follows the same rules regarding the agreement of number and gender as the normal فاعل
    - 3. المبتدأ و الخبر
      - They are مرفوع without any explicit عامل but an implied one of الابتداء (The start): زيد قائم
        
        The مبتدأ is originally معرفة and a مسند إليه (exists independently)
        
        It can be a صفة when it comes after a حرف النفي أو الاستفهام: ما قائم زيد و أقائم زيد
        
        The خبر is originally نكرة and a مسند به (needs something else to exist)
        
        However if the نكرة has a صفة or other specification it may come as a مبتدأ: أ رجل في الدار أم امرأة و ما احد خير منك و في الدار رجل و سلام عليك
        
        TODO: include baht on making a nakirat specific/special which will explain the examples
        
        It can also occur as a جملة: زيد أبوه قائم و زيد قام أبوه و زيد إن جاءني فأكرمته
        
        زيد خلفك and here the ظرف will be connected to an implied deleted verb such as استقر
        
        These sentences will all need a ضمير that refers back to the مبتدأ but this may be deleted due to context: البُرّ الكُرّ بستّين درهما (The wheat, a measure (of it) costs 60 dirham) and deleted from it is the ضمير: منه
        
        It may also be brought forward: قي الدار زيد
        
        There may be more than 1: زيد عالم فاضل عاقل
        
        If both words are معرفة then they can be arranged either way: الله إلهنا
    - 5. خبر إنّ و أخواتها and its 5 sisters are: أنّ كأنّ لكنّ ليْت لعلّ
      - They enter upon a مبتدأ و خبر and make them منصوب و مرفوع respectively: إنّ زيدا قائم
      - Bringing the خبر before its اسم is not allowed except with a ظرف: إنّ فب الدار زيدا
    - 6. اسم كان و أخواتها TODO: link to section under الفعل
      - صار أصبح أمسى أضحى
      - These verbs enter upon a مبتدأ و خبر and render them مرفوع و منصوب respectively: كان زيد قائما
      - The خبر may precede the اسم and even the verb itself except with the verbs that start with ما: قائما كان زيد
        
        There is اختلاف about whether this is allowed with ليس
    - 7. ما و لا that resemble ليس
      - ما is used for نكرة و معرفة but لا is specifically used for نكرة: ما زيد قائما و لا رجل أفضل منك
    - 8. لا لنفي الجنس (The la that negates the whole genus)
      - It is a مسند: لا رجلَ قائم
  - المنصوبات and they are of 12 types:
    - 1. المفعول مطلق
      - It is a مصدر with the meaning of a preceding verb and it is used for 3 things:
        
        للتأكيد: ضربت ضربا
        
        النوع (to specify the type of action) using the scale of فِعلَة: جلست جِلسَةَ القاري
        
        لبيان العدد (to specify the number of actions) using the scale of فَعلَة: جلست جَلسة أو جلستين
      - It may come from a different word or باب as long as it has a similar meaning as the verb that is used: قعدت جلوسا و أنبت نباتا
      - The verb may be deleted due to context like it is said to one arriving: خير مقدم from قدمت قدوما خير مقدم
      - The verb must be deleted due to common usage: شكرا و حمدا for شكرتك شكرا و حمدتك حمدا
    - 2. المفعول به (The object)
      - It is an اسم upon which the action of a verb falls: ضرب زيد عمروا
      - TODO: link to section above: It may precede the فاعل: ضرب عمروا زيد
      - Deleting the verb:
        
        may be done due to context such as answering a question: من أضرِب؟ زيدا
        
        must be done in 4 cases:
        
        1. Due to common usage: امرأً و نفسَه for اترك امرأ و نفسه or أهلا و سهلا for أتيت أهلا لا أجانب و طيت سهلا من البلاد لا حزنا and other phrases that can be deduced like this.
        
        2. التحذير (Warning) where it is understood with an implied اَتّقِ: إيّاك والأسدَ and it may also be mentioned with repetition: الطريق الطريق
        
        3. On the condition that it is followed by an explanation: زيدا ضربته and this type has many branches.
        
        LINK: to other section(s) on the vocative 4. المنادى (the vocative)
        
        There are 5 particles: see under the relevant section of الحروف TODO
        
        The إعراب of the منادى in the following cases is:
        
        مجرور بلام or منصوب بالف when seeking help or lamenting: يا لزيدٍ! و يا زيدَاهْ
        
        Upon its normal علامة المرفوع when it comes:
        
        as a single معرفة word such as ضمة: يا زيدُ و يا رجلُ as long as the intended person is known
        
        with ال in which case it will also need أيّها or أيّتها added: يا أيها الرجل و يا أيتها المرأة
        
        منصوب with
        
        إضافة: يا عبدَ الله
        
        when it resembles إضافة: يا طالعا جبلا
        
        when it is a unspecified نكرة like a blind man would say: يارجلا خذْ بيدي
        
        With المنادى المرخَّم (apocope or abbreviation) it can be either مرفوع or with its original حركة after removing the last letters of a name: When calling حارس: يا حارُ أو يا حارِ
        
        The particle has the meaning of أدعو أو أطلب
        
        It may be omitted in speech: زيدُ اجلس هنا TODO: better example
        
        It is also used for mourning and wailing together with وا which is specifically for it: يا زيداه و وا زيداه and the ruling for its إعراب is the same as for the normal منادى
    - 3. المفعول فيه
      - It contains either a زمان أو مكان (time or place) for the action of the فاعل and it is called a ظرف
      - ظروف الزمان:
        
        has 2 types:
        
        1. مبهم (unlimited): دهر و حين
        
        2. محدود (limited): يوم و ليلة و شهر و سنة
        
        It is منصوب due to the assumption of في before it: صمت دهرا for صمت في دهر
      - ظروف المكان
        
        has 2 types:
        
        1. مبهم (unlimited): جلست خلفك و امامك
        
        It is منصوب due to the assumption of في before it:
        
        2. محدود (limited) but here it is necessary to bring it with في: جلست في الدار
    - 4. المفعول له
      - It explains the reason for the aforementioned فعل and it is منصوب due to the assumption of a لام: ضربته تأديبا for للتأديب
    - 5. المفعول معه
      - It is what comes after a و with the meaning of مع: جاء البرد و الجبّاتَ و جئت أنا و زيد
      - If the فعل is explicit and if عطف is...
        
        allowed then the إعراب can go both ways: جئت أنا و زيداً أو زيدٌ
        
        not allowed then it has to be منصوب: جئت و زيدا
      - If the فعل is implicit and if عطف is...
        
        allowed then it has to use the عطف: ما لزيد و عمرو؟
        
        not allowed then it has to be منصوب:ما لك و زيدا
    - 6. حال
      - Indicates the state of the فاعل or the مفعول, or both: جاءني زيد راكبا و ضربت زيدا مشدودا و لقيت عمروا راكبين
      - Its فاعل may be implied, such as with إشارة or omitted completely: زيد في الدار قائما with the verb استقرّ deleted or: هذا زيد قائما which means: المشار إليه قائما هو زيد
      - Its عامل is a فعل or aشبه فعل or any word that can have the meaning of a فعل: هذا زيد قائما with the meaning of أنبّه و أشير TODO: include list and explain more?
        
        It may be deleted due to context as is said to the traveller: سالما غانما with the verb ترجع deleted.
      - It is always نكرة and the ذو الحال mostly معرفة.
      - When the ذو الحال is نكرة it must precede the حال: جائني راكبا رجل to avoid confusion of it being a صفة: رأيت رجلا راكبا (I saw a man who was in the state of riding) as opposed to رأيت راكبا رجلا: (I saw a male rider?) TODO: check translations of these
      - It may also be a جملة خبرية: جاءني زيد و غلامه راكبا أو يركب غلامه
    - 7. التمييز
      - It is نكرة and specifies an unclear or unspecified amount of:
        
        numbers: عندي عشرون درهما
        
        volume/weight/measure: قَفِيزان بُرّا و منوان سمنا
        
        area/distance: جريبان قطْنا و ما في السماء قدْر راحةٍ سحابا
        
        type of material (rare): هذا خاتم حديدا و سوار ذهبا
        
        It is usually مجرور in إضافة: خاتمُ حديدٍ
        
        something else: على التمرة مثلها زبدا (Upon the date is its like in weight of butter)
      - It can also come after a جملة to clear up confusion: طاب زيد نفساً أو علما أو أبا
    - 8. المستثنى
      - It is mentioned after إلّا and its sisters and it excludes something from the مستثنى منه (that which is being excluded from)
      - It has 2 types
        
        متّصل when the مستثنى was a part of the مستثنى منه: جاءني القوم إلّا زيدا
        
        منقطع or منفصل when the مستثنى was not part of the مستثنى منه: جاءني القوم إلّا حمارا
      - It declines in 4 ways:
        
        1. منصوب if it is:
        
        1a. متّصل and comes after إلّا with a موجب (positive statement not a negative, question or prohibition): جاءني القوم إلّا زيدا
        
        1b. منقطع
        
        1c. brought forward upon the مستثنى منه: ما جاءني إلّا زيدا أحد
        
        1d. After خلا و عدا according to the majority of grammarians
        
        1e. After ما خلا و ما عدا و ليس و لا يكون: جاءني القوم خلا زيدا
        
        خلا و عدا etc. could also be used as verb, rendering the مستثنى accordingly as a فاعل.
        
        2-3. After إلّا with a غير موجب (negative statement or prohibition or question) and the مستثنى منه is....
        
        mentioned: it can be منصوب or بدل of the مستثنى منه: ما جاءني أحد إلّا زيدًا أو زيدٌ
        
        مفرّغ (not mentioned): According to the normal إعراب without إلّا: ما جاءني إلّا زيد و ما رأيت إلّا زيدا و ما مررت إلّا بزيد
        
        4. مجرور according to the majority if it is after غير و سِوَى و سواء و حاشا: جاءني القوم غير زيد
        
        The إعراب of غير will follow the إعراب that the مستثنى would have with إلّا: TODO all examples?
      - غير was initially coined as a صفة (“other than”) but can also be used for exclusion and likewise إلّا has sometimes been used for a صفة with the meaning of غير: لا إله إلّا الله as usually إلّا is used for universal concepts (which are groups of things).
    - 9. خبر of كان and its sisters
      - It becomes the مسند: كان زيد قائماً
      - Its rulings are the same as for the خبر of a مبتدأ except that a معرفة may precede the اسم: كان القائمَ زيدٌ
    - 10. اسم إنّ and its sisters
      - It becomes the مسند إليه: إنّ زيداً قائم
    - 11. لا for negation of the whole genus
      - It becomes the مسند إليه
      - It may come as a نكرة مضافة: لا غلامَ رجل في الدار or it can resemble it: لا عشرين درهما في الكيس
      - If it comes as a single نكرة it will have a فتحة: لا رجلَ في الدار
      - If it comes as a معرفة or a نكرة with something between it and لا it will be مرفوع and لا will have to be mentioned again with another اسم which will follow the same إعراب: لا زيدٌ في الدار ولا عمروٌ و لا فيها رجلٌ و لا امرأةٌ
      - The اسم may be deleted due to context: لا عليك for لا بأس عليك
    - 12. خبر of ما و لا that resemble ليس
      - It becomes the مسند: ما زيد قائماً و لا رجل حاضراً and this is for the language of the people of حجاز.
      - Its action is negated if it comes after إلّا: ما زيد إلّا قائم or when the خبر is brought before the اسم: ما قائم زيد or if إنْ has been added: ما إن زيد قائم
      - In the language of بنو تميم the ما و لا don't have any action from the outset.
  - المجرورات
    - It comprises the مضاف اليه only. In it is contained an explicit حرف الجر: مررت بزيد or an implicit one: غلام زيد for: غلام لزيد
    - From the مضاف are deleted the following: تنوين or what takes its place like نون التثنية والجمع: جاءني غلامُ زيد و غلاما زيد و مسلمو مصر
    - There are 2 types of إضافة
      - معنوية in which the مضاف is not a صفة and this contains the meaning of a حرف الجر be it a لام أو مِنْ أو في: غلام زيد و خاتم فضة و صلاة الليل
        
        Its benefit is knowing the مضاف to be معرفة when the مضاف إليه is معرفة or to have something specified when the مضاف إليه is نكرة: غلام رجل
      - اللفظية: The مضاف here is a صفة connected to the word it affects with separation and easing pronunciation its goal: ضارب زيد و حَسَنُ الوجه
    - الإضافة إلى ياء المتكلم
      - When a اسم صحيح (an اسم without any حرف علة) or TODO is made مضاف to ياء المتكلم the end receives a كسرة and the ياء either a ساكن او فتحة: غلامي و دلوي و ظبيي
      - If an اسم ends with an ألف it remains: عصاي و رحاي contrary to what الهذيل claims: عصيّ و رحيّ
      - If an اسم ends with an ياء مكسور they are assimilated due to التقاء الساكنين and the ياء المتكلم receives a فتحة as in the case with قاضي: قاضيّ
      - If an اسم ends with an واو مضموم it is changed into a ياء and becomes like the other cases: جاءني مسلميّ
      - الأسماء الستة become شس follows: أخي و أبي و حمي و هني و فيّ or فمي according to a some and when not in an إضافة they are أخ و أب و حم و هن و فم و ذو however ذو always comes in an إضافة but not to a ضمير except in rare cases: TODO example?
  - التوابع (followers: and their declension is not due to any عامل acting on them, but solely due to following a preceding word)
    - 1. النعت (or صفة)
      - it describes:
        
        a quality of the followed word: جاءني رجل عالم. It follows the متبوع in 10 things:
        
        1-3. الإعراب الثلاث
        
        4. التعريف
        
        5. التنكير
        
        6. الإفراد
        
        7. التثنية
        
        8. الجمع
        
        9. التذكير
        
        10.التأنيث
        
        something connected to it: جاءني رجل عالم أبوه (A man came, whose father was knowledgeable). It only follows in the first 5 items: (النساء:٧٥)ق:مِن هَذِهِ الْقَرْيَةِ الظَّالِمِ أَهْلُهَا
        
        Not a ضمير nor can a ضمير be a نعت
      - its uses:
        
        1. specifying the منعوت when it is نكرة . Note that the نعت may also be a جملة خبرية: مررت برجل أبوه عالم/ قام أبوه
        
        2. clarifying the منعوت when it is معرفة : الرجل العالم
        
        3. for praise only: بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
        
        4. for ridicule/dispraise: أعوذ بالله من الشيطان الرجيم
        
        5. for emphasis: (ق:نَفْخَةٌ وَاحِدَةٌ(الحاقة:١٣
    - 2. العطف بالحرف (or عطف النسْق)
      - It attributes to the تابع what is attributed to its متبوع . Its conditions:
        
        That this attribution is what is intended as it might also be عطف الجمل: TODO: example
        
        That one of the 10 حروف العطف is between it and its متبوع: قام زيد و عمرو
        
        If the متبوع is a مجرور pronoun, the حرف الجرّ has to be repeated: مررت بك و بزيد: Rule of thumb: only if the معطوف can be a substitute for the معطوف عليه then it will follow it in being either a صفّة أو خبر أو صلة أو حال else it can't. TODO: example of the contrary?
        
        Two معمولs of two different عاملs may be joined if the معطوف عليه is مجرور مقدّم: في الدار زيد و الحجرةِ عمرو: It is allowed by الفراء even when it is not مقدّم but سيبويه doesn't allow any of this.
    - 3. التأكيد
      - It is used to firmly establish an attribute of the متبوع or to indicate that every part/individual of a universal concept falls under the same ruling.
      - 1. لفظيّ (explicitly): By repeating the first word: جاءني زيد زيد و جاء جاء زيد
      - 2. معنويّ (implicitly): By using a number of words:
        
        النفس و العَين for singulars, duals and plurals by changing the form and its pronoun: جاءني زيد نفسُه و الزيدان انفسهما أو نفساهما and a ضمير مرفوع متّصل must be brought with its منفصل form: ضربت أنت نفسُك
        
        كِلا و كِلتا for the masc. and fem. duals
        
        كلٌّ و أجمَعُ و أكتَعُ و أبتَعُ و أبصَعُ. for other than duals by changing the ضمير for كلّ and the form in the others: جاءني القوم كلّهم أجمعون أكتعون و قامت النساء كلّهنّ جُمَعُ كُتَعُ
        
        Only for those words that comprise parts either physically or legally: أكرمت القوم كلهم أو اشتريت العبد كلّه
        
        The words from أكتع onwards can only come after أجمع and not before it nor without it.
    - 4. البدل (apposition or substitution) here the تابع is the actual intended object instead of the متبوع and it has 4 types:
      - 1. بدل الكل من الكل and it refers to the whole of the متبوع: جاءني زيد أخوك
      - 2. بدل البعض من الكل and it refers to part of the متبوع: ضربت زيدا رأسَه
      - 3. بدل الاشتمال which refers to something that is attached to the متبوع: سُلب زيد ثوبُه
      - 4. بدل اغلط which is only in speech to correct a mistake: جاءني زيد جعفر
      - Only in the case when you have a بدل نكرة and a متبوع معرفة it must come with a نعت: ق:بالنّاصِيَةِ نَاصِيَةٍ كَاذِبَةٍ
    - 5.عطف البيان: here the تابع is not a صفة of the متبوع but rather a clarification with the more famous of 2 names for something and the متبوع is the intended object: قام أبو حفْص عمر و قام عبد الله بن عمر
      - It may be confused with بدل الكل in the meaning of a sentence, depending on whether the intended object is the تابع or the متبوع
      - It may not be confused explicitly as in: أنا ابنُ التاركِ البَكريِّ بِشرٍ (here بشر cannot substitute البكري)
  - الاسم المبني (also known as اسم غير متمكِّن)
    - It has 2 types of words:
      - 1. Words that come by themselves and are potentially معرب but alone are مبني upon رفع: زيد, أ, ب, واحد, اثنان
      - 2. Words that resemble the مبني الأصل in that they were never معرب originally but only receive a meaning with a context like the اسم الإشارة or if they have less than 3 letters or if they contain the meaning of a حرف such as: ذا و مَنْ و أحد عشر إلى تسعةِ عشرَ
    - Its ruling is that the end of the word does not change when different عاملs act upon it.
    - It has 8 categories:
      - 1. المضمرات (pronouns)
        
        These are words that refer back to the 1st, 2nd or 3rd person if they have been previous mentioned explicitly, implicitly or according to the ruling (TODO explain ruling)
        
        It has 2 types:
        
        1. متصل: These are always connected to another word and they can be منصوب و مرفوع و مجرور :ضربت ضربني و إنّني و غلامي و لي
        
        There are 2 hidden for the مرفوع state in the ماضي: ضرب و ضربت and 5 in the مضارع: أضرب و نضرب و تضرب و يضرب and it is generally hidden when it comes as a صفة (TODO explain صفة)
        
        2 additional ضميرs have been identified that create attention in the audience: ضمير الشان which explains the matter at hand: (قُل هو الله أحد) and ضمير القصة which explains a story: إنّها زينب قائمة
        
        2. منفصل: They come alone and can be مرفوع و منصوب: أنا و أعطيته إيّاي
        
        It may only be used if there is a difficulty in using the متصل: (إيّاك نَعْبُد) و ما ضربك إلّا أنا و أنا زيد و ما أنت إلّا قائما
        
        A ضمير الفصل is inserted between a مبتدأ معرفة and either a خبر or تفضيل with من to avoid confusion of it being a موصوف و صفة pair which would be an incomplete sentence: زيد هو القائم و كان زيد هو أفضل من عمرو
      - 2. الأسماء الإشارة
        
        They are 5 words for 6 meanings
        
        For مذكر: ذا and its dual: ذان و ذَين
        
        For مؤنث: تا و تي و ذِي و تِهِ و ذِهِ و تِهي و ذِهي and its dual: تان و تَين
        
        For جمع: أُولآء
        
        ذا is used for things that are near, ذلك for far and ذاك for in between.
        
        They are prefixed with ها to create attention: هذا و هذان و هؤلاء
        
        They can have the حرف الخطاب (the 2nd person pronouns) attached to their endings: ذاك و ذاكما وذانك
        
        Which results in 5x5=25 different words.
      - 3. الاسم الموصول
        
        It can only be understood with its corresponding جملة خبرية which is called its صلة and must contain an عائد (something that refers back) to the موصول: جاء الّذي أبوه قائم أو قام أبوه
        
        For مذكر: الّذي and for its dual: اللّذان و اللّذَين and its جمع: الّذِين و الْأُلى
        
        For مؤنث:الّتي and its dual: اللّتان و اللّتَين and its جمع: اللاتي و اللوَاتي و اللّاءِ و اللّائِي
        
        Others:
        
        ما و مَنْ و أيّ و أيّة of which the latter 2 are مضاف
        
        The ال with the meaning of اللّذي when its صلة is a اسم الفاعل و مفعول: جاءني الضارب زيدا و جاءني المضروب غلامه
        
        The tribe called بني طيّ also use ذو in the meaning of اللّذي: فإنّ الماء ماء أبي و جدّي و بئري ذو حفرت و ذو طويت with the meaning of اللّذي حفرته و اللّذي طويته
        
        The عائد may be omitted if it comes as a مفعول: قام اللّذي ضربت for ضربته
        
        أي و أية are معرفة except when the beginning of their صلة has been deleted: TODO: example
      - 4. أسماء الأفعال (Noun verbs)
        
        These are nouns in the meaning of an أمر أو ماضي: رُوَيْدَ زيدا for أمْهِلْه and هَيْهَاتَ زيد for بعُد
        
        Also comes on the scale of فَعالِ with the meaning of أمر and these are deducible from the triliteral verbs: نَزَالِ for إنزِل and تَراكِ for أترُك
        
        However, this scale is also used for a مصدر معرفة: فَجارِ for الفجور or a feminine description when used with the vocative only: يا فَساقِ أو لَكاعِ for فاسقة و لاكعة or it is an actual feminine name: قطام و غلاب و حضار
      - 5. الأصوات (Onomatopoeia), words that describe sounds: غاق for a crow or words used for calling animals: نَخّ to make a camel sit.
      - 6. المركبات (compound nouns): words made by joining 2 words that are not related
        
        If the second word contains a حرف the words are مبني with a فتحة: أحد عشر و تسعة عشر else the most eloquent way is to give the first a فتحة and the second according to غير منصرف: بَعْلَبَكَّ
      - 7. الكنايات (place holders): words that indicate an unknown quantity or reference: كم و كذا and كَيْتَ و ذَيْتَ (such and such/blah blah) but فلان و فلانة for names are معرب
        
        كم
        
        is of 2 types:
        
        1. استفهامية: what follows is a singular منصوب تمييز: كم رجلا عندك؟
        
        2. خبرية: is followed by a singular or pluralمجرور: كم مالٍ أنفقتُه! و كم رجالٍ لقيته and it indicates a myriad
        
        من may enter both types: كم من رجل لقيته و كم من مال أنفقته
        
        The تمييز may be deleted due to context: كم مالك for كم دنارا مالك؟ and كم ضربتُ for كم ضربةً ضربتُ
        
        It may be implied to be in different states of إعراب:
        
        It can be منصوب if it is:
        
        مفعول به of a verb that follows it which doesn't already have a ضمير as مفعول: كم رجلا ضربت و كم غلامٍ ملكتُ
        
        مصدر (as a مفعول مطلق؟): كم ضربةً ضربتَ؟ و كم َضربةٍ ضربتُ
        
        مفعول فيه: كم يوما سرتَ و كم يومٍ صمتُ
        
        It can be مجرور if it is preceded by a حرف جر or a مضاف: بكم رجلا مررتُ و على كم رجل حكمتُ و غلام كم رجلا ضربت و مال كم سلبت
        
        It will be مرفوع otherwise and then either a مبتدأ: كم رجلا أخوك و كم رجل ضربته or a خبر when it is a ظرف: كم يوما سفرُك و كم شهرٍ صومي
      - 8. الظروف المبنية: The indiclinable adverbs
        
        They are of several types:
        
        1. When cut of from their إضافة when the مضاف اليه is omitted: قبْلُ و بعْدُ و فوقُ و تحتُ (TODO:examples) but only if this is intended by the speaker else it may be معرب
        
        2. حيثُ is usually مضاف to a جملة and sometimes to a single word: أما ترى حيثُ سهيل طالعا for مكان سهيل and the condition for … TODO is that it is مضاف to a جملة
        
        3. إذا gives a meaning for future if it comes with a ماضي and it contains the meaning of a condition and after may come a جملة اسمية: آتيك إذا الشمس طالعة but preferably فعلية: آتيك إذا طلعت الشمس
        
        It is also used for المفاجأة (surprise) after which a جملة اسمية comes: خرجت فإذا السبُعُ واقف
        
        4. إذ is used for the ماضي and can be followed by a جملة فعلية أو خبرية: جئتك إذ طلعت الشمس و إذ الشمس طالعة
        
        5. أَيْنَ و أَنّى used for مكان in استفهام: أين تمشي؟ و أنّى تقعد؟ and can also indicate a condition: أين تجلس أجلس و أنّى تقم أقم
        
        6. متى for شرط أو استفهام: متى تصم أصم و متى تسافر؟
        
        7. كيف for questioning about a state: كيف أنت؟ for في أي هال أنت؟
        
        8. أيّان for questioning about a time: أيّان يوم الدين?
        
        9. مذ و مُنْذُ and they can either indicate the start of a time or total duration of a time: ما رأيته مذ أو منذ يوم الجمعة و مذ أو منذ يومين as reply depending on how the question was asked.
        
        10. لدى و لَدُن in the meaning of عند: المال لديك with the difference that عند does not require the actual presence of the thing mentioned: TODO example
        
        11. قطّ: negates the past entirely: ما رأيته قطّ
        
        12. عَوْضَُِ: negates the future entirely: لا أضربه عوض
        
        13. أمسِ with a كسرة as it is said by the people of الحجاز
        
        If a ظرف is made مضاف to a جملة it may receive a فتحة: يوْمَُئذ و حينئذ and likewise مِثْلُ و غَيْرُ when they come with ما و أنْ و أنّ: ضربته مثلَُ ما ضرب زيد و غيرَُ أنَّ ضرب زيد
  - Conclusion
    - Principles according to which an اسم becomes معرب أو مبني:
      - 1. An اسم is of 2 types:
        
        1. المعرفة (definite): That اسم that has been coined for something and it has 6 types:
        
        1. المضمرات (pronouns)
        
        2. الأعلام (proper nouns): That what has been coined for something and cannot be described with any other single word
        
        3. المبهمات (unspecified things): أسماء الإشارات (demonstrative pronouns) and الموصولات (relative pronouns)
        
        4. المعرف باللام
        
        5. A مضاف to any of the above in إضافة معنوية
        
        6. المعرف بالنداء: What is specified by calling
        
        2. النكرة (indefinite): What has been coined for something unspecified: رجل و فرس
      - 2. أسماء العدد (The numbers): What has been coined to indicate the quantity of singular things and it has 12 basic words: واحدة إلى عشرة و مائة و ألف
        
        1 and 2 agree with the gender of the counted object: رجل واحد و رجلان اثنان و امرأة واحدة و امرأتان اثنتان
        
        They occur as صفة and there is no مميز as the words themselves do not need the number to be mentioned: عندي رجل و رجلان
        
        3 till 10 disagree with the gender of the مميز: ثلاثة رجال و عشرة رجال و ثلاث نِسوَة و عشر نسوة
        
        The مميز is مجرور and plural except for مائة where it may remain singular: ثلاث مائة و ثلاث مآت و ثلاث مِئِين
        
        10 till 19 in which the مميز will be singular منصوب: أحد عشر رجلا و اثنا عشر رجلا و ثلاثة عشر رجلا إلى تسعة عشر رجلا و إحدى عشرة امرأة و اثنتا عشرة امرأة و ثلاث عشرة امرأة إلى تسع عشرة امرأة
        
        With 20 and above the male and female forms are the same:عشرون رجلا أو امرأة إلى تسعين رجلا أو امرأة و أحد و عشرون رجلا و إحدى و عشرون امرأة و اثنان و عشرون رجلا و اثنتان و عشرون امرأة و ثلاثة و عشرون رجلا و ثلاث و عشرون امرأة إلى تسعة و تسعين رجلا و تسع و تسعين امرأة
        
        100 and above in which the مميز will be singular and مجرور: مائةُ رجل أو امرأة و ألف رجل أو امرأة و مائتا رجل أو امرأة و ألفا رجل أو امرأة
        
        Combining numbers: First come the thousands, then hundreds, then singulars, then tens: عندي ألف و مائة و أحد و عشرون رجلا و ألفان و مائتان و اثنان و عشرون رجلا و أربعة آلاف و تسع مائة و خمس و أربعون امرأة
      - 3. The gender of an اسم
        
        It is masculine by default or feminine according to:
        
        Explicit signs: a ة: طلحة or an ألف مقصورة: حبلى or an ألف مدودة: حمراء
        
        Implicit signs: أرض و دار as indicated by their diminutive: أُرَيضة و دُويرة
        
        Femininity of an اسم is either حقيقي where a word has an actual male counterpart: امرأة و ناقة or لفظي otherwise: ظلمة و عين
      - 4. Duals: nouns that have attached to their ending an ألف أو ياء and a ن with a فتحة before them: رجلان و رجلين
        
        For the مقصور nouns, if an ألف was originally a و then it will return: عصا و عصوان else it will become a ي: رحى و رحيان و حبلى و حبليان
        
        The ممدودة nouns, if the ء was originally there it remains: قرّاء و قرّاءآن and if it was for femininity it becomes a و: حمراء و حمراوان and if it replaces a و or a ي it may either stay or change: كساوان أو كساءان
        
        The ن must be deleted from a مضاف: جاءني غلاما زيد و مسلما مصرٍ
        
        If a dual is مضاف to another dual then the first must be changed to a جمع: أَيْدِيَهما
      - 5. Plurals
        
        To indicate multiple entities by either changing a word or by intending it for words whose singulars and plurals are the same: فُلْك and words like قوم و رهْط even if they refer to single entities.
        
        مصحّح: when they contain the same form of the singular word:
        
        Masculine: It ends with ـُونَ أو ـِينَ: مسلمُونَ و مسلمِينَ
        
        For the منقوص the ي is deleted: قاضون و داعون and for the مقصور the ألف is deleted and a فتحة before it takes its place: مصطفَون and it is specific for intelligent being.
        
        The ن is deleted from a مضاف: مسلمو مصرَ
        
        Feminine: It ends with ـَات: مسلمات but only when talking about a group that contains no males else it will be مسلمون and also not when the singular contains no ة: حائض و حامل unless it is not a صفة: هندات
        
        مكسّر (broken plurals): They are on many patterns for the triliterals which are سماعي: رجال و أفراس و فلوس and for the quads: فَعَالِل و فَعَالِيل
        
        Plurals themselves are also of 2 types: جمع قلّة and this is used for less then 10and is on the patterns of: أَفْعُل و أفعَال و أفعِلة و فِعلَة and the جمع كثرة is used for above 10. TODO: check correctness and add examples
      - 6. المصدر (verbal noun): They indicate an occurrence and from them verbs are derived. Their form areسماعي for the root triliteral verbs but deductible for the مزيد قيه
        
        If it is not a مفعول مطلق then like its verb it can make its فاعل مرفوع: أجبني قيام زيد or its مفعول منصوب: أجبني ضرب زيد عمروا but neither of them may precede the مصدر and it can also be a مضاف to both: كرهتُ ضرب زيد عمروًا أو عمرٍو زيدٌ
        
        If it is a مفعول مطلق then only the verb before it does the action: ضربتُ ضربا عمروا
      - 7. اسم الفاعل: It is the noun for the one that performs the action of the verb
        
        It is on the scale of فاعِل for the regular triliterals and for the مزيد فيه the مضارع is taken then the حرف المضارع replaced by مُـ and the second to last letter is given a كسرة: مُدخِل و مُستخرِج
        
        It does the action of a فعل معروف for nouns that are indefinite:
        
        if it comes in the meaning of present or future tense it can represent a:
        
        مبتدأ: زيد قائم أبوه
        
        ذو الحال: جاءني زيد ضاربا أبوه عمروا
        
        موصول: مررت بالضارب أبوه عمروا
        
        موصوف: عندي رجل ضارب أبوه عمروًا
        
        همزة الاستفهام: أ قائم زيد
        
        حرف النفي: ما قائم زيد
        
        For the past tense it must be a مضاف: زيد ضارب عمروٍ أمس
        
        The definite form can be used for all tenses: زيد الضارب أبوه عمروا الآن أو غدا أو أمس
      - 8. اسم المفعول (the object): A noun indicating whom the action of the verbs falls upon
        
        It comes in the regular triliterals on the scale of مفعول:مضروب explicitly or implicitly: مقُول و مرمِيٌّ or similar to the اسم الفاعل of the مزيد فيه but with ـَ on the second to last letter: مُدخَل و مُستخرَج
        
        It does the action of the passive verb with the same conditions of the اسم الفاعل: زيد مضروب غلامه الآن أو غدا أو أمس
      - 9. الصفة المشبّهة (noun derived from an adjective): It affirms the quality of the verb for something
        
        Its pattern is not fixed but سماعي: حَسَن و صعْب و شُجَاع و شريف و ذلول
        
        It action can occur in 18 (2x3x3) different situations: It comes with or without ال and then the affected word is a مضاف or it comes with or without ال and that word can then have the 3 regular case endings: جاءني زيد الحسن وجهَُِه and similarly: الحسن الوجهَُِ والحسن وجهًٌٍ و حسن وجهَُِه و حسن الوجهَُِ و حسن وجهًٌٍ
        
        TODO: the 5 different types of
      - 10. اسم التفضيل (the comparative and superlative): A noun that indicates for something that it has more of a quality than something or everything else.
        
        For regular triliterals not indicating colours or defects it is on the scale of أفعَلُ: زيد أفضل الناس
        
        For verbs indicating colours or defects or مزيد فيه it has to be constructed with another اسم التفضيل from the regular triliterals followed by the مصدر of that verb being منصوب as a تمييز: هو أشدّ استخراجا و أقوَى حُموةً و أقبح عَرَجًا
        
        It is usually used for the فاعل but sometimes for the مفعول: أعذر و أشغل و أشهر
        
        It is used in 3 ways:
        
        2 for the comparative:
        
        as a مضاف where making the number correspond is optional: زيد أفضل القوم و الزيدون أفضل أو أفضلو القوم
        
        with مِن: زيد أفضل من عمرٍو and here the تفضيل must always be male singular: هند و الزيدان و المسامات أفضل من عمرو
        
        The superlative with ال: زيد الأفضلُ and here the number must correspond: الزيدون الأفضلون
- فعل
  - 1. ماضي
    - The past tense: what occurred before your time and it is مبني upon a فتحة unless it comes with a متحرك pronoun or a و in which case it ends in a ساكن or ضمة respectively: ضربَ و ضربْتَُِ و ضربُوا
  - 2. مضارع
    - It starts with one of the letters of أتين
      - These are with ضمة in the رباعي and the مزيد فيه which have 4 letters in their ماضي: يُدَحرِجُ و يُخرِجُ و يُنَزِّلُ and they will have فتحة in all others.
    - May be preceded by لام تأكيد: إنّ زيدا لَيَقُومُ (or لام الابتداء or لام المزحلقة) which only applies to the present.
    - It gives the meaning of joining the present with the future like the اسم فاعل which is why it is called مضارع (the similar one).
    - When preceded by س or سَوفَ it denotes the future and سوف may also be prefixed with the لام تأكيد
    - TODO: Need clarification on section on origin of verbs and its iraab
    - It declines in 4 ways:
      - 1. for صحيح verbs for the singular form other than the second person
        
        1. رفع with a ضمة
        
        2. نصب with a فتحة
        
        3. جزم with a ساكن
      - 2. for تثنية و جمع المذكّر and the singular second person be it صحيح or not:
        
        1. رفع with a ن: هما يفعلان و هم يفعلون و أنتِ تفعلين
        
        2. نصب and جزم by omitting the ن:لن يفعلا و لن يفعلوا و لن تفعلي
      - 3. for the ناقص يائي و واوي verbs except for the forms تثنية و جمع و المخاطب
        
        1. رفع with an implied ضمة: هو يرمِي و يغزُو
        
        2. نصب with an explicit فتحة: لن يرمِيَ و يغزوَ
        
        3. جزم by the deletion of the 3rd radical: لم يرمِ و يغزُ
      - 4. for the ناقص ألفيّ verbs except for the forms تثنية و جمع و المخاطب
        
        1. رفع with an implied ضمة: هو يسعى
        
        2. نصب with an implied فتحة: لن يسعى
        
        3. جزم by the deletion of the 3rd radical: لم يسعَ
    - المرفوع: Its cause is implied by the absence of anything that causes نصب أو جزم
    - منصوب: It is caused by 5 particles:
      - 1. أنْ: أريد أن أذهبَ
        
        After علم (to know) it does not make a verb منصوب as أن implies a wish or desire (something unknown) whereas what follows after علم is something definitely known : TODO
        
        After ظنّ (to think) you can choose to make a verb منصوب or not: ظننتُ أن سَيَقُومُ
      - 2. لنْ: لن أضربَك
      - 3. كَيْ: أسلمتُ كَي أدخُلَ الجَنّةَ
      - 4. إذَنْ: إذَنْ يغْفِرَ الله لك
      - 5. أنْ المقدّر (implied) and this occurs in 7 places:
        
        1. After حتّى: أسلمتُ حتّى أدخُلَ الجَنّةَ
        
        2. ِWith لام كَي: قام زيد ليذهبَ
        
        أن may be explicitly mentioned here: أسلمتُ لأن أدخُلَ الجَنّةَ
        
        أن must be explicitly mentioned when it comes with لام النفي: لئلا يعلم (lest) TODO: better example
        
        3. With لام الجَحدِ which is used in خبر كان to emphasize a negative كان ماضي: TODO
        
        4. With the ف that occurs in:
        
        جواب الأمر: أَسلِمْ فتَسلِم
        
        نهي: لا تَصعِ فَتُعذِّب
        
        الاستفهام: هل تعلّم فتنجُو
        
        النفي: ما تزورنا فنُكرِمُك
        
        التمنّى: لَيتَ لي مالا فأُنفِقُه
        
        العرض: ألا تَنزِلُ بنا فتُصِيب خيرا
        
        5. With the و that comes with all of the aforementioned: أَسلِمْ و تَسلِم
        
        6. After أو that comes with the meaning of إلى أنْ أو إلّا أن: لأحبِسنّك أو تُعطيني حقّي (unless)
        
        7. After واو العطف when the معطوف عليه is a clear اسم: أعجَبَني قيامُك و تَخرُجَ because أن renders it in the meaning of a an اسم
        
        أن may be explicitly mentioned here: و أن تَخرُجَ
    - مجزوم (The jussive verb)
      - نهي (negations)
        
        لم: This changes the meaning from the present tense to the past negative tense
        
        لمّا: idem but there is an expectation of the action after it and a duration before it: قام اﻷمير لمّا يركب. The فعل may be deleted with لمّا only: ندم زيد و لمّا
        
        لام الأمر: لِيدخُلْ
        
        لا: لا تدخلْ
      - كَلِم مجازات (The conditional words): It is a حرف أو اسم that enters upon جملتين:شرط و جزاء (a condition and consequence)
        
        They are: إن و مهما و إذ ما و حيثُما و أين و متى و ما و منْ و أيّ و أنّى و إن
        
        Rules
        
        If both شرط and جزاء are مضارع then both have to be مجزوم: إن تُكرِمْنِي أُكرِمْكَ
        
        Nothing changes if both are ماضي: إن ضربتَ ضربتُ
        
        If only the جزاء is ماضي then the شرط must be مجزوم: إن تضربْني ضربتُك
        
        If only the شرط is ماضي the جزاء can optionally be مجزوم: إن جئتني أكرِمُْك
        
        In 4 cases the جزاء has to start with ف
        
        Except in 2 cases:
        
        If the جزاء is ماضي without قد then the شرط may not start with a ف: إن أكرمتني أكرمْتك as also in:( ق:وَ مَنْ دَخَلَه كَانَ آمِناً(آل عمران:٩٧
        
        If the جزاء is مضارع in the affirmative (مثبت) or نفي بلا it may optionally start with ف: إن تضربْني أضربْك أو فأضربْك / إن تَشتِمني لا أضربْك أو فلا أضربْك
        
        1. When the جزاء is ماضي with قد: TODO
        
        2. When the جزاء is مضارع منفي بغير لا: لإ: TODO
        
        3. When the جزاء is a جملة اسمية: TODO
        
        إذا may take the place of the ف: TODO
        
        4. When the جزاء is a جملة إنشائية be it one of:
        
        أمر: TODO
        
        نهي: TODO
        
        استفهام: إن تَركتَنا فمن يرحَمُنا
        
        دعاء: إن أكرمتنا فيرحَمُك الله
        
        إن may be assumed with 5 verbs when you intend that the first part is the cause for the second:
        
        1. أمر: تَعَلَّمْ تنج
        
        2. نهي: لا تَكذِبْ يكن خيراً لك
        
        3. استفهام: هل تزورنا نُكرِمْكَ
        
        4. التمنّي: لَيتَك عِندِي أخدِمْك
        
        5. العرضُ (suggestion): ألا تنزِل بِنا تُصِب خيرا
        
        6. And also with نفي in some places: لا تَفعلُ شرًّا يكن خيرًا لك and the assumption of إن at the beginning will prevent you from saying: لا تَكفُرَ تدخُل النار
  - 3. أمر
    - Rules:
      - It is formed by removing the حرف المضارع and if it is followed by a…
        
        ساكن then by adding aهمزة الوصل which gets a ضمة if the third letter has this as well: اُنصُرْ else it gets a كسرة: اِعلَمْ و اِضرِبْ و اِسْتَخرِج
        
        متحرّك it doesn't need a همزة: عِد و حاسِب
        
        باب الإفعال is from this type as يُكرِم comes originally from يأكرم
      - It is مبني upon its مجزوم form.
  - Passive verbs (فعل ما لم يُسمَّ فاعله or فعل مجهول)
    - In it the فاعل is deleted and the مفعول takes its place and this is specific to transitive (متعدّي) verbs
    - Its signs:
      - In the ماضي verbs the second to last letter has a كسرة and one of following:
        
        Only the 1st letter has a ضمة in those بابs where the first letter is not a همزة الوصل: ضُرِبَ و دُحرِجَ و أُكرِمَ
        
        The 1st and 2nd letter have a ضمة in those بابs where the first letter is a تاء زائدة: تُفُضِّلَ و تُضُورِبَ
        
        The 1st and the 3rd letter have a ضمة in those بابs where the first letter is a همزة الوصل: اُستُخرِجَ و اُقتُدِرَ and the همزة will only have the ضمة if it is not assimilated due to اجتماع الساكنين.
      - In the مضارع, the حرف المضارع has a ضمة and the second to last letter has a كسرة: يُضرَبُ و يُسْتخْرَجُ
        
        Except for those بابs where the ضمة is present by default so the only sign will be the كسرة: المفاعلة و الإفعال و التقعيل و القعللة و ملحقاتها الثمانية: يُحاصَبُ و يُدحْرَج
      - Exception: الأجوف verbs:
        
        ماضي: the ف will have a كسرة: قِيلَ و بِيعَ and TODO
        
        مضارع: the ف will have the فتحة instead of the ع: يُقالُ و يُباعُ
  - فعل متعدّي أو لازم
    - لازم (Intransitive): When the action only affects the فاعل: قعد و قَامَ
    - متعدّي (Transitive): when the action falls upon other than the فاعل: ضرب and it can have...
      - one مفعول only: ضرب زيد عمروًا
      - or مفعولين: أعطى زيد عمروًا درْهما and this may be shorted to only 1: أعطيتُ زيدا او أعطيتُ درْهما except for علِمتُ
      - or 3 مفعولs: أعلم اللهُ زيدًا عمرًا فالاً and the other 6 verbs for which this is possible are: أرى و أنْبأ و نبِّأ و أخْبَرَ و خبّر و حدّث
        
        These may also be shorted to the first مفعول only: أعلم الله زيداً
        
        The 2nd and the 3rd مفعول are like the مفعولين علِمتُ in that they must occur together, not only one of them.
  - أفعال القلوب: They enter upon a مبتدأ و خبر and both are made منصوب: علِمتُ زيدا فاضلا و ظنَنتُ عمروا عالما
    - They are: علِمتُ و ظَنَنتُ و حسِبتُ و جِلتُ و رَأيتُ و زعَمتُ و وجَدتّ
    - Its special properties:
      - The مفعولين may not be shortened to a single مفعول as with أعطيتُ
      - The مفعولين may be omitted if the verb falls between or after a مبتدأ و خبر: زيد ظننتُ عالم أو زيد قائم ظننتُ
      - It may be attached to the front of:
        
        الاستفهام: علمتُ أزيد عندك أم عمرو
        
        النفي: علمتُ ما زيد في الدار
        
        لام الابتداء: علمتَ لزيد منطلق
      - The فاعل and the مفعول may both be attached pronouns: علمتَني منطلقا و ظننتُك فاضلا
      - Some verbs can come with a different meaning and only one مفعول منصوب in which case they will no longer be from أفعال القلوب
        
        ظننتُ بمعنى اتّهَمتُ و علمت بمعنى عرَفتُ و رأيتُ بمعنى أبصرتُ و وجدتُّ بمعنى أصَبتُ الضالة :TODO translation?
  - الأفعال الناقصة : So called because they only indicate the time, not the meaning of the verb's مصدر and they come with a خبر منصوب
    - They are: كان و صار و أصبَحَ و أمسَىَ etc...
    - They enter upon a جملة اسميّة: كان زيد قائما
    - كان comes in three forms:
      - 1. ناقصة: This indicates that the خبر applies to the فاعل either in the past, perpetual or that it has discontinued: TODO
      - 2. تامّة : it will have the meaning of ثبَتَ أو حَصَلَ: كان القِتَال
      - 3. زائدة: it is extra and omitting it will not change the meaning of the sentence: TODO
    - صار is used to indicate a transition: صار زيد غنيّا أو صار الطين حجرا
    - أصبح و أمسى و أضحَى are used...
      - to indicate the time of the sentence that follows: أصبح زيد ذاكرا
      - with the same meaning as صار: أصبح زيد غنيّا
      - As فعل تامة where they will have the meaning of دخل في الصباح و الضحى و المساء
    - ظلّ و بات: indicate the time of the attached sentence, day or night: ظلّ زيد كاتبا and they also come with the meaning of صار
    - ما زال و ما فَتِئَ و ما بَرِحَ و ما أنفَكَّ indicate the continuation of the existence of the خبر with regards to the فاعل: ما زال زيد أميرا and it must come with a حرف النفي
    - ما دام indicates the establishment of something for the time that its خبر persists: أقُومُ ما دام الأمير جالساً
    - لَيسَ indicates an absolute negation of the meaning of a sentence for either the present time or at all times: ليس زيد قائما and refer to the other notes on ليس
  - الأفعال المقاربة: They indicate the closeness of the خبر in regards to the فاعل and they are of 3 types:
    - 1. للرّجاء (for anticipation) with:
      - عسى
        
        this verb is only used in the ماضي and its action is like كاد except that its خبر is a فعل مضارع with أن: عسى زيد أن يقوم (Zaid might stand) where عسى here is a فعل ناقصand أن may also be deleted.
        
        the خبر may also precede the اسم: عسى أن يقوم زيد in which case it will be تامة without needing a خبر as here زيد is the فاعل of يقوم
    - 2. للحصول (for setting in/occurring) with:
      - كاد: Its خبر is a فعل مضارع without أن: كاد زيد يقوم (Zaid was about to stand) and أن may enter the خبر
    - 3. للأخذ و الشروع في الفعل (with the meaning of starting/beginning contained in the verbs) and they are:
      - طَفِقَ و جعل و كرُب و أخذ
        
        They are used like كاد: طفق زيد يَكتُب
      - أوْشك and it is like كاد و عسى
  - فعل التعجّب (The verb of wonder/amazement)
    - it comes in two forms for those verbs which have a اسم تفضيل form:
      - ما أفْعَلَه: ما أحسن زيدا which is derived from أيّ شيء أحسن زيدا in which هو is the فاعل
      - أَفْعِل به: أحسن بزيد here زيد is the فاعل according to سيبويه
    - it will be obtained with others such as the مزيد فيه و الرباعي like so:
      - ما أشَدَّ استخراجه و اِدُد باستخراجه
    - bringing forward the مفعول و المجرور or taking the فعل back or inserting anything between the two are all not allowed, but المازنيّ has allowed allowed inserting a ظرف: ما أحسنَ اليوم زيدا
  - أفعال المدح و الذمّ (Verbs of praise and dispraise)
    - 2 verbs for مدح:
      - نِعمَ
        
        its فاعل is a اسم معروف باللام: نعم الرجل زيد or it can be a مضاف to that اسم: نعم غلام الرجل زيد
        
        if its فاعل is a ضمير it must be specified with a تمييز in the form of a نكرة منصوبة: نعم رجلا زيد or with ما:
        
        and زيد here is called المخصوص بالمدح
      - حبّذا
        
        it comprises the فعل المدح as حبّ and its فاعل as ذا: حبّذا زيد
        
        the مخصوص may switch places with a:
        
        تمييز: حبّذا رجلا زيد و حبّذا زيد رجلا
        
        حال: حبّذا راكبا زيد حبّذا و حبّذا زيد راكبا
    - 2 verbs for dispraise: بِئسَ و سَاءَ and they are both used exactly like نعم
- الحروف (The particles)
  - 1. حروف الجرّ: It is placed to attain the result of an فعل and what resembles it or an implied فعل to what follows it. There are 19:
    - 1. مِن: It is used:
      - للابتداء الغاية: to indicate the start towards an objective or end: سِرتُ من البصرة إلى الكوفة
      - للتبيين: for clarification where it may be replaced by الذي: TODO
      - للتبعيض: indicating a portion of piece of something where it may be replaced by بعض: كُلْ من الطعام أو أخذت من الدراهم
      - زائدة: extra where the meaning is the same when it is left out: ما جاءني من أحد and the Basris claim it is not allowed in موجَب (positive/affirmative) statements, so only for نفي و الاستفهام contrary to what Kufis say.
    - 2. إلى and it indicates the conclusion of the objective or end and something it has the meaning of مع: TODO
    - 3. حتّى: and it is similar to من: نَمتُ البارحة حتّى الصباح and it often has the meaning of مع: قدم الحاجّ حتّى المُشاة and it has to come with an explicit word and not with a ضمير contrary to what المبرّد or some poets have said.
    - 4. في: it is used as a ظرف (preposition): زيد في الدار and sometimes it has the meaning of على: TODO
    - 5. ب and it is for
      - 1. للإلصاق : closeness in reality: به داء or for passing by: مررت بزيد (my walking passed close by the place of Zaid)
      - 2. للاستعانة : for seeking aid: كتبت بالقلم
      - 3. للتعليل أو للسببية for explanation or causality: الحمد لله الذي أنقذه بي من النار
      - 4. للمصاحبة : for companionship: خرج زيد بعشيرته
      - 5. للمقالبة: for exchange: بعتُ هذا بذاك TODO: better example here
      - 6. للتعدية: to make an intransitive verb transitive: ذهبت بزيد
      - 7. للظرفيّة: as a preposition: جلست بالمسجد
      - 8. زائدة : where it comes extra and the meaning is understood by ignoring it in the following cases:
        
        خبر النفي: ما زيد بقائم
        
        قي الاستفهام: هل زيد بقائم
        
        سماعا: used traditionally for a مرفوع: بحسبك زيد and ق: كَفَى بالله شهِيداً or for a منصوب: القى بيده (throw his hand; throw himself)
    - 6. الام is used
      - للاختصاص أو للمِلك : for specifying possession: المال لِزيد أو لَه
      - للتعليل: ضربته للتأديب
      - زائدة: TODO
      - with the meaning of عن where it is used with a قول: TODO
      - with the meaning of الواو القَسم (for swearing an oath): TODO
    - 7. رُبّ is used for indicating small numbers similar to how كم الخبرية indicates large numbers: ربّ رجل كريم لقِيتُه
      - it may come with only the male singular ضمير with a تمييز نكرة منصوبة regardless of its number or gender: ربه رجالا
        
        the Kufis however claim the ضمير has to correspond to the number and gender of the تمييز: ربها امرأة
      - it may come with ما which blocks the effect of ربّ and it enters upon a جملة اسمية أو فعلية: TODO
    - 8. واو رُبّ: TODO
    - 9, 10, 11. حروف القسم which are used for swearing an oath by something followed by or near what is confirmed.
      - They are:
        
        9. واو القسم it is only for clear nouns and not for a ضمير: و اللهِ TODO
        
        10. تاء القسم : it is only for to be used with الله or sometimes in إضافة: تالرحمن أو ترَب الكعبة
        
        11. باء القسم: it is for clear nouns as well as a ضمير: بالله أو بك
      - If a sentence starts with these particles then they are followed by a sentence called المقسم عليها
        
        When it is affirmative it must have a لام when it is اسمية أو فعلية: والله لزيد بقائم و والله لأفعلنّ كذا or إنّ for اسمية: والله إنّ زيد لفائم
        
        When it is negative it must come with لا أو ما: والله ما زيد بقائم و والله لا يقوم زيد and sometimes it is deleted: TODO
      - It can also fall in the middle or after what is indicated at: زيد قائم والله و زيد والله قائم
    - 12 عن is used for passing over or through: رميت السهم عن القوسِ إلى الصيد
      - It can come with مِن after which عن will then mean جانب (besides): جلستُ من عن يمينه
    - 13. على is used for being over or above something: زيد على السطح
      - It can come with مِن after which على will then mean فوق (above): نزلتُ من على الفرس
    - 14. الكاف للتشبيه (for resemblance): زيد كعمروٍ and it can also come زائدة or as an اسم itself: TODO
    - 15,16. مُذ و مُنذ which indicate either a starting time in the past: ما رأيته مذ رَجَبَ (I haven't seen him since the month of Rajab) or a time period in the present: ما رأيته مذ شهرنا و منذُ يومنا (I haven't seen him these months or these days)
    - 17,18,19. خلا و عدا و حاشا: they indicate استثناء (exclusion): جاءني القوم خلا زيد و عدا بكرٍ و حاشا عمرو
  - 2. الحروف مشبّهة بالفعل (Particles resembling verbs)
    - They enter upon a جملة اسمية و تنصب الاسم و ترفع الخبر
    - They are 6:
      - 1. إنّ
        
        Doesn't change the meaning of the sentence but only emphasizes it
        
        Can only be used:
        
        at the beginning of a جملة و قول و أمر و نهي و دعاء و نداء
        
        after a موصول: ما رأيت الذي إنه في المساجد
        
        Emphasizing a خبر has to be done with a لام instead: إنّ زيدا لقائم
        
        This لام must be present when إنّ has been lightened to إنْ: TODO
        
        but it may also be omitted?
        
        It can also enter upon verbs
        
        عطف upon the اسم may be done by either رفع أو نصب: إنّ زيدا قائم و عمرو و عمروًا
      - 2. أنّ:
        
        This is used when the emphasized word is a:
        
        فاعل: بلغني أنّ زيدا قائم
        
        مفعول: كرهتُ أنّك قائم
        
        مبتدأ: عندي أنّك قائم
        
        مضاف إليه: عجبت من طول بكرا قائم
        
        مجرور: عجبتُ من أنّ بكرا قائم
        
        After لو: لو أنّك عندنا لأكرمتك
        
        After لولا: لولا أنّه حاضر لغاب زيد
        
        It may also be lightened similarly to إنّ and then it enters upon a جملة فعلية أو اسمية and with the former the verbs must come with السين أو سوف أو قدْ أو حرف النفي: بلغني أنْ زيد قائم و بلغني أنْ قد قام زيد
      - 3. كأنّ is used for تشبيه (resemblance) and made up of الكاف التشبيه و إنّ with the إ changed into أ : كأنّ زيد الأسد
        
        It may also be lightened which will prevent its action: كأنْ زيدٌ أسدٌ
      - 4. لكِنّ is used for استدراك (rectification) and it comes between two sentences that are different in meaning: ما جاء زيد لكنّ عمروا جاء و غاب زيد و لكنّ بكرا حاضر
        
        it may come with a واو: قام زيد و لكنّ عمروا قاعدٌ
        
        it may be lightened which will prevent its action: ذهب زيد لكنْ عمرو عندنا
      - 5. ليت is used for تمنّى (wish/desire): ليت زيدا قائم (I wish Zaid was standing)
        
        الفراء has allowed ليت to mean أتمنى: ليت زيدا قائما
      - 6. لعلّ is used for ترجّى (hope): أُحِبُّ الصالحين و لستُ منهم لعلّ الله يرزقني صلاحا
        
        it may give جرّ in rare cases: لعلّ زيدٍ قائمٍ
    - Rules:
      - They may have ما attached which stops their action and it is used with verbs: إنّما قام زيد
  - 3. حروف العطف (particles that join) and they are 10
    - 1-4: و ف ثمّ حتّى: These are for joining the معطوف عليه with its معطوف in their ruling.
      - و is for absolute joining: جاءني زيد و عمرو
      - ف is for a succession without delay: قام زيد فعمرو (Zaid stood up and then Amr)
      - ثمّ is for a succession with a delay: دخل زيد ثمّ عمرو (Zaid entered and Amr followed shortly after)
      - حتّى is like ثمّ with the conditions that its معطوف is part of its معطوف عليه and it indicates its:
        
        strengthening: مات الناس حتى الأنبياء (The people died, even the Prophets)
        
        weakening: قدم الحاجّ حتى المشاة (The pilgrim walked even? In the crowd)
    - 5-7: أو إمّا أم: These are for establishing something ambiguous which is one of two things and not any one in particular: مررت برجل أو امرأة
      - إمّا is only an عطف if has come before in the sentence: العدد إمّا زوج و إمّا فرد (A number is either many or 1?)
        
        and it may also come before أو: زيد إمّا كاتب أو أمّي (Zaid is either literate or illiterate)
        
        when used in a question the answer has to be نعم أو لا: أ جاءك إمّا زيد أو عمر as the questioner wants confirmation of the coming of either one and not about who exactly came.
      - أم is of 2 types:
        
        1. متصلة (connected/continued/persistent) and with it the questioner can confirm something from an ambiguity and it is used with 3 conditions:
        
        1. That it comes with a همزة: أ زيد عندك أم عمرو
        
        2. The word after the همزة must be similar to the word after أم in it being an اسم أو فعل: أ قام زيد أم قعد
        
        3. The answer must be affirming one of the two things mentioned in the question.
        
        2. منقطعة It will mean بل with همزة الاستفهام and it is used to rectify a previous statement: You think you see a camel from far then doubt comes to you and you say:أم هي شاة with the meaning of بل أ هي شاة
        
        This أم is only used in the خبر as mentioned or in a question: أ عندك زيد أم عمرو (Is Zaid with you or rather is Amr?) where you abandon Zaid and really only ask about Amr
    - 8-10. لا بل لكنْ : These are all used to affirm one of two things.
      - لا is for TODO
      - بل is for abandoning the first and affirming the second: جاءني زيد بل عمرو و ما جاءني بكر بل خالد (Zaid and Khalid didn't come)
      - لكنْ is for rectification and a negation must either come after or before it: ما جاءني زيد لكن عمر جاء و قام بكر لكن خالد لم يقمْ
  - 4. حروف التنبيه (The particles for reminding/alerting) and they are 3:
    - 1-2. ألا و أما They only enter upon a جملة اسمية أو فعلية: TODO
    - 3. ها it enters upon a sentence: ها زيد قائم or a single item: هذا و هؤلاء
  - 5. حروف النداء (Particles for calling) and they are 5:
    - 1-2. أَ و أَيْ are for nearby
    - 3-4. أيا و هيا are for far away
    - 5. يا which is for both near and far
  - 6. حروف الإيجاب (The particles of answering) and they are 6:
    - 1. نعم is for confirming what precedes it whether is was a affirmative or negative statement.
    - 2. بلى is to confirm what preceded as a negative question or statement: لم يقمْ زيد و قلت بلى (Zaid did stand).
    - 3. إي is for confirming a questioned and it must be followed by swearing an oath: هل كان كذا فقلت إي والله
    - 4-6. أجل خير إنّ and they are used to confirm having faith in what has been said before.
  - 7. حروف الزائدة (The particles that come extra)
    - 1. إنْ and it is added to ما النافية: ما إن زيد قائم أو ما إن مدحتُ محمدا بمقالتي لكن مدحت مقالتي بمحمد and sometimes to ما المصدرية: انتظر ما إن يجلس الأمير and with لمّا: TODO
    - 2. أنْ and it is added to لمّا for time: TODO and between لو which has an oath that precedes it: والله أن لو قمتَ قمتُ
    - 3. ما and it is added to the conditional particles إذا و متى و أيّ و أنّى و أين و إن such as in: إذا ما صمتَ صمتُ and also after some حروف الجرّ such as ب و ف و عن و من و ك
    - 4. لا and it is added to واو after a negation: ما جاءني زيد و لا عمرو and after ما المصدرية: TODO and after the verb to swear an oath: TODO
    - 5-7. مِن و الباء واللام: see their section under حروف الجرّ
  - 8. حرفا التفسير (The 2 explanatory particles): أي و أن by which you start an explanation of something that precedes it.
  - 9. حروف المصدر
    - 1-2. ما و أنْ these are only used for a جملة فعلية: TODO
    - 3. أنّ is used for a جملة اسمية: علمتُ أنّك قائم with the meaning of قيامك (I knew about your standing)
    - 4-5. كي و لو have been included in this group by some.
  - 10. حروف التحضيض (Particles used for encouragement)
    - They are placed at the beginning of a sentence and only come with a فعل and are composed of a حرف النفي prefixed with a حرف الشرط أو الاستفهام أو حرف المصدر
    - 1-2. هلّا و ألّا
      - It is for encouragement with a فعل مضارع: هلّا تأكُل
      - It is for blame with a فعل ماضي: هلّا ضربت زيدا
        
        The فعل could also be implied if it is followed by anاسم: هلّا زيدا with the meaning of هلّا ضربتَ زيدا
    - 3-4. لولا و لوما: TODO: examples
      - These 2 can also carry another meaning, namely to indicate the prevention of the second sentence due to the existence of the first: لولا عليّ لهلك عمر and in this case the first sentence will always be اسمية
  - 11. حرف التوقّع (The particle of expectation): قد
    - With a فعل ماضي it indicates
      - تقريب (nearness in time): قد ركب الأمير (The Ameer was riding just a short while ago) and therefore it is sometimes also called حرف التقريب (particle of nearness)
      - تأكيد (emphasis) if it is used to confirm a question: هل قام زيد؟ قد قام زيد
    - With a فعل مضارع it indicates
      - تقليل (infrequent occurrence): إنّ الكذوب قد يصدُق و إنّ الجواد قد يبخَلُ
      - تحقيق (confirmation) : TODO
    - There may be a قسم between it and its verb: قد والله أحسنتَ
    - Sometimes the فعل that follows is deleted due to context: TODO
  - 12. حرفا الاستفهام (The 2 interrogative particles)
    - 1-2. هل و الهمزة and they come at the beginning of speech followed by either a جملة فعلية أو اسمية: أ زيد قائم أو هل قام زيد and usage with فعلية is the most common.
      - The همزة may occur in certain places where هل may not, some of them are:
        
        1. With an اسم مع فعل: أ زيدا ضربتَ
        
        2. For voicing disapproval: أ تضرب زيدا و هو أخوك
        
        3. With أم المتصلة: أ زيد عندك أم عمرو
        
        4. With حروف العطف: أَ وَ مَنْ كَانَ
  - 13. حروف الشرط (Conditional particles) and they enter upon two sentences where either one can be a جملة اسمية أو فعلية
    - 1. إنْ and it is used for the future even it comes with a فعل ماضي: إن زرتني أكرمتك
      - The verb may also be implied: إن أنت زائري فأنا أكرمتك
      - It is only used for doubtful matters because for expected things you would use إذا: آتيك إذا طلعت الشمس
      - If it occurs with a قسم preceding it then the verb must be ماضي either explicitly or implicitly: والله إن أتيتني لأكرمتك أو والله إن لم تأتني لأهجرتك
        
        Here the second part is the جواب القسم which has to come with a لام for positive statements or ما أو لا for negative statements but these may be omitted if the قسم occurs in the middle of the sentence: إن تأتني والله آتك.
    - 2. لو is used for the past even it comes with a فعل مضارع: لو تزورني أكرمتك
      - Like إن its verb may also be implied
      - It indicates the negation of the second sentence caused by the negation of the first.
    - 3. أمّا is used for elaborating what preceded it as a summary: الناس سعيد و شقّي: أما الذين سعدوا ففي الجنّة و أمّا الذين شقوا ففي النار
      - It must come with the ف in its جواب
      - The جواب must be caused by what is before it.
      - The فعل may be deleted as long as is also deleted in the other part: أمّا زيد فمنطلق which means: مهما يكن من شيء فزيد منطلق
  - 14. حرف الردع (The preventative particle): كلّا
    - It comes to prevent the speaker from: TODO
    - It can be used as a reply to an أمر: اضرب زيدا و فقلت كلّا which means: لا أفعل هذا قطّ
    - It can come with the meaning of حقّا (indeed): TODO
    - It can also come with the meaning of إنّ which emphasizes the whole sentence: TODO
  - 15. تاء التأنيث الساكنة
    - It comes with a فعل ماضي wherever it refers to a feminine فاعل
      - When it is followed by a ساكن letter in the next word it will be given a كسرة: قد قامتِ الصلاة
  - 16. التنوين (Nunnation) It is a نون ساكن that is added to the end of a word but not for emphasis of a فعل and it has 5 types:
    - Only for an اسم:
      - 1. للتمكّن (For the declinable) and it is also called تنوين الصرف because it indicates that an اسم is منصرف: زيدٌ
        
        It is sometimes deleted from a علم (proper noun) when it comes with ابن أو ابنة followed by another علم to shorten the speech: جاءني زيد بن عمرو أو هند ابنة بكر
      - 2. للتنكير (For indefiniteness) and it indicates that an اسم is نكرة: TODO
      - 3. للعوض (To substitute) and it is used to replace a مضاف إليه المحذوف: حينئذٍ و ساعَتَئِذٍ و يومئذ which means: حين إذ كان كذا etc...
      - 4. للمقابلة (As a comparison) and it is in the جمع مؤنث سالم: مسامات as a counterpart of the ن in the جمع مذكر سالم: مسلمون
    - For either an اسم أو فعل
      - 5. للترنّم (for song/chant) as is used in poetry: TODO
  - 17. نون التأكيد (The ن for emphasis)
    - It is used for the أمر و مضارع when they indicate a request similarly to قد for the فعل ماضي
    - It has 2 types:
      - 1. خفيفة (light) which is always ساكن: اضربَُِن
        
        It does not occur for the تثنية و جمع المؤنّث as these forms cannot be resolved with the rules of اجتماع الساكنين
      - 2. ثقيلة (heavy) which has a شدّة and it has:
        
        a فتحة if there is no ألف before it: اضربَُِنَّ
        
        else a كسرة: اضربانِّ و اضربنانَّ
    - It may also enter upon النهي و الاستفهام و التمنّي و العرض و العرض as all of these contain a request: لا تضربنّ و هل تضربن و ليتك تضربنّ و ألا تنزِلنَّ بنا فتصيب خيرا TODO: some better examples
    - It can also enter upon the swearing of an oath to emphasise its latter part as the oath itself also contains emphasis: ولله لأفعلنّ كذا
    - The letter preceding it will usually have a فتحة but can also have a:
      - ضمة to indicate the deleted و of the جمع مذكر: اضربُنّ
      - كسرة to indicate the deleted ي of the مخاطبة: اضربِنّ